Painting of a fight witnessed in 1845 at Sherbourne Shepherds Station, on the junction of the lower Goulburn River (probably by J. Phillips).

DESCRIPTION:

• A fight witnessed in 1845 at Sherbourne Shepherds Station on the junction of the lower Goulburn River (probably by J. Phillips).

The full catalogue record is online at http://archival.sl.nsw.gov.au/Details/archive/110338072.

‍

In a letter written by Martin Lynch to Archibald Campbell in 1898 he states:

".....Recollect to see the fight between the Bong Bong Aboriginal tribe and Wollongong tribe. Both tribes in number wood be fully 15 hundred. The number killed would be over 100. This was origanated by Aboriginal Dr Ellis taking a gin away from the Bong Bong tribe. The fight was on Mr James Towensend paddock, which is accultiry Para Meadow. They buried the dead at the bottom on Towensend paddock on an arm of Fairy Creek."

Martin Lynch's Reminiscences 1897

Mr [Martin] Lynch in his early boyhood - about 1830 -  witnessed a battle at Fairy Meadow, between the Illawarra blacks and the Bong Bong blacks, over something in the lady line.

The battle took place in a naturally clear spot - the real Fairy Meadow - situated immediately on the north and east of what is now the junction of the Main Road and Mt Ousley road. Mr Lynch declares that several hundred men on each side took part in the battle, which consisted of a series of intermittent onslaughts, which extended over three days and nights.

During the continuance of the battle some of the men and women would go abroad hunting for food.

The battle was won by the Illawarra blacks. Many blacks on both sides were killed and more wounded. The killed were buried in the tea tree scrub between the site of the battle and the sea (between two arms of Fairy Creek). The weapons were mostly spears, "nullah nullah's", and "waddies" of one shape or another.

‍

"Then he [Thomas] gives the evidence for the massacre between Kangerong and Arthurs
Seat:

‘about 18 or 20 years back nearly half the tribe were killed between Kangerong and Arthur’s Seat’.

Definitionally, for nearly half the Bonurong to be wiped out, they must have been surprised while asleep in a dawn raid by their enemies. This was the way Aboriginal groups destroyed their enemies when they meant business."

Further evidence is also given ny Fels :

"William Buckley, the convict who escaped from Collins’ settlement at Sorrento in 1803 and made his way round the bay where he was adopted by the Waudthourong at Indented Heads, also recounted the massacre, though, as with all of Buckley’s recollections which can be checked, he got it partly wrong and partly right.

He described the Bonurong as ‘a small tribe … greatly thinned in number by a cruel onslaught made on them in the night by the Waworongs, on which occasion they murdered men, women and children’. In this instance, Buckley got the name of the perpetrators wrong. (ibid. p263)

‍

‍

‍

‍

“A MURDEROUS CONFLICT BETWEEN THE ABORIGINES. — There is a rumour of a murderous conflict having occurred between the blacks of the Avoca and those of the Murray in the beginning of last month, when no fewer than sixteen victims had been sacrificed to the demon of revenge by aboriginal ferocity.

The 'emeute’ [French for ‘riot’, ‘violence’, ‘trouble’, etc.], it is rumoured, had taken place in consequence of an Avoca black boy, who accompanied a settler in a tour to the Murray, having been wantonly murdered by the savages of this district, than whom there is not in this broad expanse of Australia, a tribe more blood thirsty, fierce, and savage.

News of this cruel and barbarous act having been brought to the Avoca tribe, the females in passionate grief tore their hair, cut their heads with their tomahawks, mourned the premature end of their lusty sapling — the future hope and bulwark of their tribe— and called upon their men to revenge the bloody deed.

The men yelled fiercely, and swore that before two suns had risen over their enemies' heads, the tribe of the Mullea should pay back blood for blood, and life for life— and forthwith despatched messengers to their friends soliciting assistance.

About day-break, the Murray tribe lay buried in sleep, after a night of revelry and rejoicing, for having killed one of a stranger tribe, when the Avoca tribe, fired with revenge, palpitating for blood, fierce and ruthless as tigers, pounced upon their enemies, and a promiscuous slaughter of men, women, and children ensued.

The women, who were speared, were carried away by the conquerors, as the " opima spoila" [ presumably meant to be ‘spolia opima’ – Latin, meaning ‘rich spoils’, specifically spoils of war] of their victory. We cannot vouch for the truthfulness of this rumour, but we give it as we have heard it from our country friends. — Corio Chronicle..”

‍

‍

“THE BLACKS. —Intelligence has reached town of a massacre which took place a few days ago, at Mr Allan's Station, near Port Fairy.

There has been an enmity of long standing between the Port Fairy and the Porrambeet tribes, commonly known as Allan's and Manifold's blacks.

Several of the Port Fairy tribe were camped close to Mr Allen's hut, where they deemed themselves in perfect safety. In the middle of the night, however, a party of the adverse tribe came upon them, and a sanguinary conflict ensued.

The contest, however, was an unequal one, for the sleepers had not time to get their weapons, and the attacking party fell upon them with the fury of a pack of wolves. The whites in the adjoining hut were awakened by the yells and groans of the belligerents, but before they could interfere, the fight had become a flying one.

The attacking party effected their retreat in safety; one of the Port Fairy blacks was seen to drop down dead, and two others died in two days afterwards.

The bodies of the sufferers were dreadfully mangled, there being from fifteen to thirty spear-wounds on each.

Among the deceased is a man who belonged to the Cape Otway tribe, the last man of his race.

Another of the sufferers was well known by the name of Boy Beauty.

The murderers are well known, but it is not likely that the government will take any steps for their apprehension, or even offer a reward for the discovery of the perpetrators..”

‍

“BODIES FOUND. —Sometime last week a Mr Williamson discovered the bodies of two aboriginals in a creek on the station of Captain Cain, in the neighbourhood of Kilmore, of which he is the overseer.

The bodies were found jammed between two logs, lying in the creek, and had evidently been placed there by their murderers. The skin of the face of one of them was cut off, and every feature completely destroyed, and both were very much perforated with spear wounds—decomposition had not begun on either.

The Murray and Devil's River tribes have for some time been making preparations for war upon each other, and it is conjectured that the former had surprised the latter, and that the bodies found are part of the slaughter which ensued..”

‍

"The Blacks. — About nine lubras at Mount Eccles [not Eales?], have been killed by the Mount Rouse blacks within the last month, but we believe there it no exertion being made to bring the murderers to justice.

There have been more depredations committed by the Mount Rouse blacks than by all the other tribes of the district put together, which is saying a deal, and will sufficiontly attest the heavy responsibility the Government incur in longer continuing in black nursery of crime there or elsewhere.

We do sincerely trust, for the sake of the aborigines themselves, the safety of the lives and properties of the settlers, and the credit of the colony, that the Committee of the Legislative Council at present considering the state of these wretched beings will devise some effectual means for their restraint and protection, but the first step to that desirable object must be the total extinction of the present nefarious Protectorate. — Portland Guardian.

‍
[It is not a little remarkable that although the Press of this Province, and individual opinion, have been loud in clamouring against this Protectorate nuisance, as not only a wilful waste of the public monies, but an expenditure productive of injurious consequences to the black and white
population, the matter seems to base utterly escaped the notice of our Sydney contemporaries.
The matter is certainly before a Committee of the Legislative Council, but with what views or
upon what data they have entered upon it, the public are, to a great extent, ignorant of. Do
they know what the Port Phillip Protectorate have been about the past twelve months? We
will tell them— -getting up scenes for the Exeter Hall pseudo philanthropists— impeding the course of justice as effecting the Aboriginals, but clearing the way for the persecution of Europeans — remaining in the rear when they should be in the van— instead of being the pioneers of civilization, they can scarcely be ranked at the reserve— they have never been called into action, and they seem resolved not to go forth unasked. Many valuable suggestions and facts for the information of the Committee are obtainable from authentic sources in this district, but it generally unfortunately happens, that the majority of the Reports in such cases, are adapted by the Council ere the public have had time or opportunity to ascertain the truth, falsity, sufficiency, or insufficiency of the data upon such Report to grounded.— Ed. P. P. P.]

Summary.

An Aboriginal camp was surprised attacked by a raiding band of Aborigines from other districts resulting in the death of four women and one man. A second attack on another camp led to several more detahs, mostly of women.

‍

Details - Newspaper report:

A pathetic interest attaches to the portraits of baby "Sunday," aged three months and the half-cast girl Kitty, aged about I0 years, in connection with the recent Laverton massacre. (See images below) The raiders, who were gathered from the surrounding districts of Kalgoorlie, Kookynie and the spinifex country towards Lake Darlot, made their first attack on the Laverton camp at dawn, the favourite hour for a native attack. This is generally the time when the natives sleep most soundly, and consequently the attacking party were able to get some of their spears home before the camp became thor-oughly roused. In this instance success attended the raiders, who killed four women , and one man. The remainder of the Laverton men fleeing in all directions. Kitty, the half caste girl, was with three of the Laverton men, covered with a rifle and made to precede the raiders to the Lancefield camp, distant some five miles, in order to point out the position of the camp there.

On arrival at the Lancefield camp, the murderers bound the eyes of "Public House" and compelled Kitty and the others to turn their backs upon the camp in order that they should be unable to identify the actual murderers of the Lancefield natives. A rifle held by one of the attacking party still covered the guides, and the work of butchery commenced. Although the Lancefield natives were awake and up, they were so taken by surprise that, several of their number, the majority being women, were killed before they could grasp spear or club in defence. Maudie, thc mother "of baby Sunday, was one of the first to meet her death, receiving a spear in the back while running away with her baby. No sooner had Maudie fallen than Emmie, either a friend or a sister of the murdered woman, stopped in her flight, and rushing over to Maudie's side, picked up the baby and endeavoured to run with it towards some white people's houses in the vicinity. She had not gone far, how ever, when a spear also struck her in the back and she fell. Her last conscious mo-ments were spent in covering the body of the little baby, whose life she had lost her own in saving, as if she had fled at once without wailing to pick up the infant she, would probably have reached a place of safety. When her body was found she was lying face downwards with the little creature tucked under her left arm and entirely unhurt. "Sunday" as the baby was christened, is now thriving at the Salvation Army home at Kalgoorlie, where also is Kitty, whose life for some years will be in danger from the vengeance of the relatives of those whom her evidence may help to convict.

‍

Summary : A staged battle of 150 Aboriginal warriors on each side leading to one death and about 6 wounded

‍

Detail :

The most bitter fights were those where there was a debt of blood to pay—a debt never condoned by other means than blood.
The spot selected for the encounter in this instance was a long flat, in wet weather a swamp, leading into a creek, on the banks of which were the camps, extending for a distance of half-a-mile. The creek was fringed with scrub, and close at hand was a large brush, which served the double purpose of cover in case of need, and [?]eld for the united forces to procure food by hunting. Out on this flat then the two rival forces were drawn, pretty equal in numbers. About 150, on each side of fighting men armed with spears, boomerangs, [?]rongs, kanines (clubs), jabbars (paddymelon sticks), and helamans. Among some of them there had been a good deal of fanciful painting in white and red, the pipe olay and a red pigment used for the purpose, with a few birds feathers stuck in the hair on the head, which was drawn together into a knot and tied tightly with a cord. The dark natural colour of the skin was usually made blacker by means of charcoal. The helamans were also painted with a black background of charcoal and grease, relieved with white and red bands. Every man was perfectly nude and nothing to fetter body or limbs except a worsted belt, composed of opossum hair made into a thin cord, and wound round the waist many scores of times. In this was stuck the smaller weapons, boomerangs and jabbars, occasionally a kanine or tomahawk. A knife (in olden time usually a shear blade, with rag wound round for a handle) was carried in the hand or mouth, the left hand carried the helaman and spears, while the right simply held the missile to be hurled at the adversaries. The [?]s and children posted themselves some distance away, the former having, for the most part, each a yam stick (a stick from 4 to 5 feet long, sharp at one end only). Two gray-headed warriors had been doing a lot of talk, apparently with the view of arranging preliminaries, but the effect was the opposite of what was intended, for the combatants sat down and evinced a desire to commence


Other men now and then, joined in the talk, which assumed the sound of altercations, accompanied with a good deal of gesticulation. This pour parleying lasted but half an hour, the talk increasing without signs of cessation, when a Grafton lady in a shrill tone put in her tongue, and advancing within [?] yards of the opposite side, began to declaim in a violent tone. Her subject was something not very complimentary to those she was addressing, for there was soon a perceptible movement in the dark forms, who had been taking it so quiet previously. To her voice she added gesture—spitting, and otherwise expressing her contempt and hatred. Within two or three minutes she had sent a barb which must have struck home, for a man who had been sitting with bent head and averted face, suddenly sprang to his feet and sent a boomerang with full force at the virago. A hundred voices warned her of the coming missile, which with the speed almost of a bullet, went whiring towards her head, and with a scream she just avoided what would otherwise have caught her fair in the body, and cut its way deep into the flesh. In an instant the fight had commenced [?] a rush from the Grafton side, and weapons of all kinds flying in the air. There was a good deal of shouting, especially by those who were not in the forefront of the fight, and by the lads of each side who were in the rear picking up the boomerangs that went past or went circling away in the air in various directions, as well as the paddymelon sticks which formed a large portion of the missiles. These lads often had a throw on their own account, but taking pretty good care to have the sheltor of a tree at hand, when their presence attracted attention. Foremost among the Graftonians side was a tall fine fellow who would he remembered by old settlers by the name of Shady and by the distinguishing title of “Long” as there were several others so named. Sandy was soon a conspicuous object both to spectators and to the other [?]. Full 20 yards in advance of his tribe he was within 30 yards of the Richmond fellows, and a heavy boomerang just thrown by him had split the heliman of one of his antagonists, who was quick enough to stop the weapon, but had not calculated the force, and he consequently had his left hand [?]ed besides receiving a severe contusion on the body from the quite spent missile. A great shout proclaimd the feat, and instantly the disabled warrior was covered by a couple of his friends, while he made good his retreat to the rear, his gin quickly recognising her lord running to meet him.

The exhulting shouts of the other side enraged the Richmond fellows, and [?]ing together in the centre Sandy had a lively time, [?] at him were hurled scores of missiles. It was marvellous how he escaped them, leaping now to the right, now to the left, again bounding fully five feet in the air, and all the while covered by that small piece of light wood, about 20 inches by 9, on which rained a quick succession of blows, not to be avoided by either means. He had an eye for everything, and over and over he would deliver his blows in return, and none dare come closer than the distance he had chosen. With a long spear he picked up, he transfixed a shield (the sharp point coming through a distance of there inches, a force which would have driven it through a man), and while the owner was thus discomforted, a paddymelon stick thrown from the side, caught the man in the thigh, and he too went down disabled, to another shout.
Wickeder than ever now fought the other side,

Their blood was up and heedless of risks they closed in, when a light spear thrown at close quarters caught a fine big young fellow on the Grafton side named Nero. The spear was barbed and struck him a few inches below the collar bone. He still stood with his face to the foe making an effort to extract the spear but in vain, then he too made away to the rear, while the opposing ranks yelled in triumph. With the assistance of another to support him Nero could not travel more than 200 yards, where sinking on the ground he fainted with the pain caused by another effort made to extract the spear, and some gins who had also run to the spot concluding he was dead, raised a peculiar cry, and instantly the fight ceased.

The Richmond blacks drew back a short distance, while the others came around the fainting man, whom several old men of the tribe had taken in charge, and while one was sucking at his side, another was busily engaged in severing the spear at the point of contact with the flesh. The gins continued their wail while his mother and his own gin gashed their heads, and the blood trickled down in a steady flow. It was

A strange scene the painted savages standing round the prostrated apparently dying warrior, who but a few minutes ago was as active as any of them. The old men with anxiety in their countenance, and the young men with looks of sorrow and revenge ; the gins with their song of wailing and in concert, now raised to a high pitch, and then dying away to almost a murmur. In about 10 minutes he became conscious again, and looking around was evidently confused in mind as to what had occurred. His attendants taking credit for restoring him, predicted he would soon be all right again, and with assistance he was able to walk over to the camp, although evidently suffering intense pain, as evidenced by the beads of perspiration on his forehead. After a little more palaver the fight recommenced and continued for another hour, during which several more casualties occurred, a Richmond combatant getting speared through the calf of the leg, and another one securing an ugly gash on the arm with a boomerang thrown again by Long Sandy, who had devoted particular attention to him as the man who had hurled the spear which wounded Nero.

The Grafton side had come in for sundry knocks more or less severe, but Sandy was scathless. One old fellow named Wyaroo an ill-favoured lean old bag of bones who had had a lot to say, but kept pretty well out of the fray, was ensconced behind a tree about 3 feet in diameter, from where be used to give a good deal of “jaw,” and occasionally hurl a missile, was marked by the other side, and a boomerang thrown with remarkable precision, although the object was not seen, came skimming round the tree caught Wyaroo on the hip, and indicted a wound which lamed him for life. The old fellow was evidently not a favourite for little notice was taken of him by his own side, but the clever shot evoked lots of shouting from the other side. These boomerangs and the paddymelon sticks were the weapons most used, the latter thrown in a manner which gave them a screw as in cricket bowling, rendering them very dangerous as they turned in their course instead of going straight ahead after they touched the ground.

The battle was claimed by the Grafton side as they ran the others off their ground, and compelled them to take shelter in the scrub. When after daring them to come forth, and others declining, the claim of victory was a fair one. The single fights took place the next day, and brought out some real fighting. It was between 9 and 10 o'clock when the sides drew up in almost the same positions occupied the previous day, and every man armed as if the general fight was to be recommenced. None of them had troubled himself with a bath so that the general appearance, paint, was the same as yesterday, only a little faded. The old men had to air their eloquence before preliminaries were arranged, but at length two entered the lists by walking towards one another without uttering a word each had had his helaman, several boomerangs, and yabbars (sticks), and a knife. There was no dusky beauty concerned in this affair. It was simply a little bad blood stirred up by mutual friends or enemies. On the Grafton side was an able young fellow named Coppy from Gordon Brook direction, on the other side, a lithe, wiry, little fellow scarcely two thirds his weight, and some years his senior. When within 30 yards Coppy throw his first yabbar, the other crouched down behind his shield and waited the missile with his eyes just showing over the top, noting the direction and knowing the thing was not coming straight, never moved. It passed harmlessly past within six inches. Coppy's next effort was delivered with better aim. It was a boomerang and it was well for the little fellow he parried it so successfully for the force of the blow shivered the boomerang into several pieces leaving a deep indentation on the heliman. His antagonist now became the assailant, and a little more than 15 yards distant he threw his yabbar, which Coppy received on his hellman near the top, but it broke its way through giving tho owner a hard rap and than bounded up twelve feet in the air. The mass of hair on Coppy's cranium must have broken the force of the blow or otherwise it was hard enough to stun a man. The throwing now became very rapid, Coppy trying to get into close quarters to grip his man, but the other was too wary and managed to get in with two or tinco blows before the bout was over. He had drawn blood from Coppy, but was himself unscratched. Several other encounters then took place. In one of these, both being strapping, able men, they were very vindictive and closed very quickly and immediately used their knives with terrible effect, for they were soon streaming with blood. One had a deep gash extending across the back and the other a deep flesh wound in the thigh, with a severe cut across the left fore arm. They both required attendance and had tho wounds daubed over with ashes and roughly bound up with some old rags of dresses or shirts torn into strips. Sandy, the hero of the day before, executed a sort of pas de seûl by stepping forth and challenging any one on the opposite side to tread on his shadow, for coat he had none. No one cared to accept it so Sandy had the ground to himself, and having a barong, an instrument shaped something like a boomerang, but with a long handle, he made an attack on an imaginary enemy, going through a good many capers, attack and defence, running like an emu and bounding like a wallaby, winding up by giving the coup de grace to his immaginary antagonist by driving his sharp pointed barong twice into the soft ground, as if he lay prostrate before him. “King Tommy,” he did not claim the royal title in those days but was known as plain Tommy or Tarrawan, came out next and thrashed his antagonist in double quick time, and the latter seemed to be glad to get away and hide his diminished head. Swelled head would, however, better describe his condition, for in an hour afterwards he had a lump on the side of his skull as big as a man's fist. An amusing part of the day's proceedings was a melee among the gins armed with their yam sticks. These were not used for thrusting, but striking only, and as in boxing, everything was delivered above the belt, the blows being warded by the stick held with outstretched arms. A good deal of this seemed little more than play, but a casual hit now and then brought out some real fighting and hard knocks. The tongues of these combatant were used quite as much as their other weapons. The day was well spun out by the proceedings, and the fighting was wound up in the evening with a grand corroboree, in which both sides joined. Next day a groat hunt took place in the bush, and hundreds of paddy melons were captured, and after that the tribes dispersed, after arranging for the next gathering.
The wounded soon recovered, with the exception of Nero, in whom inflammation set in, resulting in death in about eight days after he was wounded. A doctor who was resident in Grafton at the time proffered to extract the spear head, but his friends would not permit the operation, saying that immediate death would be the result. The doctor thought otherwise, as he did not believe the lungs were touched. He was buried within the now boundary of Grafton, and the unconscious ploughman yearly turns the furrow over the unmarked grave of the only victim of that fight. His death, I am disposed to think, was infinitely preferable to that of many of his tribe, who became addicted to drinking habits, and have been the victims of more horrible deaths.”

credit: Rodney Morrison

"There is also a ready parallel when some fifty years ago, a group in the Mt Davies, Mt Gosse, Mt Samuel area was rounded up and burned at Jalkada for similar infringements of the sacred life.”

credit: Stephen Ireland

“Heard today that there had been a grievous fight at Teringi. The Encounter Bay and Mundoo blacks were beaten. They say that 10 Mundoo blacks were speared and four on this side. (Afterwards heard that 16 Mundoos were speared, one of them fatally, by Tungerol.) It appears to have been a very ceremonial fight. First there were certain who played to make their own men laugh and then this provoked the Mundoo and the fight began and the Mundoos and Encounter bay blacks were beaten, then the same was done with the Lake Albert tribe, and they also were beaten. It appears that when a person has had the Kulduke given for him, he often goes away from the ngiangiampe or person he is to be estranged from, but in case of a ceremonial battle, he is obliged to go with his tribe. I am more convinced of the fact that these fights are to appease the dead.”

credit: Joe Lane

“The blacks had another fight today about threequarters of a mile from the station. It is all on account of Bailpoolare Solomon having ill-treated his wife Tungkummitte and she refuses, and her friends refuse to let her return to him. There were to my knowledge 6 speared today. Wasa was the worst. He was speared badly in the knee. There is a great deal of ill feeling between the Mundoo and Lake Albert blacks on this quarrel. It is not merely a superstition war but one of real enmity.”

credit: Joe Lane

“A fight took place over by Lovegrove's between the Lake Albert and Point Malcolm tribes on one side, and the Murray tribe on the other. I hear Captain Jack got speared at the late fight through the hand and Merriman in the forehead.”

credit: Joe Lane

“In the afternoon a lot of Mundoo blacks went and had a fight with waddies with the Lake Albert blacks. It was on account of some insulting expressions which the latter had uttered, and this was the way of settling the difficulty. Some of them got some ugly blows. One came to me afterwards with a frightful gash in his hand from the blow of a sharp edged Kanake. His hand was split.”

credit: Joe Lane

“There has been a violent battle between the natives of Botany Bay and this place [Port Jackson] in which many were wounded on both sides. The subject of the dispute was one of the natives of Botany Bay having mentioned the name of a person deceased belonging to this clan. For so trifling a cause do men murder each other, but is it not the same in Europe.”

credit: Stephen Ireland

Summary : Surpise clash and spear battle

‍

Details :

“After this, when all had for some time been quiet and still, sitting quite hush[ed] in the grass, we were not a little surprised to hear a great tumult which proceeded from some who sat farther back among the trees. At first the noise was simply that of men's voices wrangling with most barbarous dissonance and savage agitation, but now the clashing of spears and strokes of lances against the target was distinctly heard. Looking that way, therefore, we saw several of them engaged in warm combat, darting at each other with true savage fierceness. All now ran and seized their weapons which, by the way, must have been deposited in the grass, as till now they kept them out of our sight, and a scene of great noise and confusion ensued on all sides.

‍
The women, who hitherto had all been huddled together a little way from our boats' station, came running down with every appearance of terror. Some stayed behind, anxiously looking out from between the trees as if to observe the event and wait the decision, and the children everywhere were clinging to them and squalling pitiably. What those females meant who thus precipitously came down to us I am at a loss to conclude, but they seemed to supplicate our assistance.

‍
The battle continued long and was now and then interrupted with noisy expostulations, in the midst of which the contending parties would, however, frequently launch a spear at each other with all the rage of madmen. They are dextrous to a degree in the use of the target and during the affray, which lasted an hour, I did not see one of them completely disabled, though frequently forced to quit the field. I mean not by this to say there was no execution done, but the thickness of the trees greatly impeded our view. Four of our people affirmed that they saw one man carried off the field with a lance fast in his side. It is hard indeed to suppose but that during so long a contest some must be wounded, and in fact we see few of these people anywhere, or of any age, but have many scars and marks of weapons on their bodies.

‍
'Tis odd that the warriors in question would frequently all at once desist from the attack and talk together as though nothing at all had happened, and some of the multitude would come down and gaze at us just as before. The women were less discomposed, and many of the men, though a part of their corps were still warmly as engaged as ever, came down to the shore to discourse with us in the usual way, and apparently regardless of what was going on among the rest.”

credit: Stephen Ireland

“They [the Gudang] ha every reason to be afraid, as they had earlier retaliated against the “Yadagana” and killed 10 of them.”

credit: Rodney Morrison

“Recently, however, messenger-musterers have brought word that native women in the “north-west” have been shown the sacred life, including the initiation of young men. The call has gone out for natives of Western Central Australia to form a huge 'womala' (soldier group), and move across to the north-west to extract revenge. This has definite appeal to the natives and they acknowledge the responsibility.”

credit: Stephen Ireland

“One of those now somewhat rare events, an aboriginal fight, took place recently on the Grafton Common, were there was an assemblage of the remnants of the aboriginal tribes from Nymboida as far as Lawrence. After the pitched battle, the usual number of single fights were indulged in: the casualties were not very serious, and were confined to a couple of wounds by boomerangs.”

credit: Rodney Morrison

“The Goodang tribe returning from turtling at Mt Adolphus Islands the same day, the whole party adjourned to Albany Island, opposite the settlement, for a grand corroboree. The Korrarega lad, Wallee, who was to remain with me, was allowed to accompany them, as his friends were to depart the next day. We heard, in Somerset, the yelling and shouting of the singers and dancers during the early part of the night, and about two o'clock A. M. were roused by loud cries near the house, of 'Genetcha Yardaigan Yardaigan'. Seizing our arms, Ralph and myself ran to the beach, where we were met by Teepotti and three others who had swum over from the island. They informed us that they had been attacked while asleep, by a party of Yardiagans and some of their number speared. Rousing the Revd F. Jagg and a marine, his servant, we crossed over to the island and found to our dismay that ten of them had been speared. We first saw poor Howie lying dead, near the edge of the water; he had been struck by four spears, one of them passing through his body. Three of my little scholars were amongst the victims; one, a promising young girl of about fourteen years of age, was speared through the heart; another, a little maid of four years, had her temples beaten in with a throwing stick. It appeared that the Yardiagans had surprised them, killed and wounded as many as they were able, and then made off with two women, two canoes, and the spoil of the camp. We recovered the canoes in the course of the day.”

credit: Rodney Morrison

“During the first month of our stay an engagement took place between the Yardiagans and the united tribes of the Goomkodeens and Ambiangans. The result was fatal to the allied tribes, the whole of the Ambiagans were killed and of the Goomkoddens only seven men survived, and they were compelled to join the conquering Yardiagans so that now (1868) there are only four tribes at the northern extremity of Cape York peninsula. ”

credit: Rodney Morrison

We class this massacre as a 'genocide' as it led to the extirpation of a whole tribe, the Ambiagans.

“The fight which took place among the blacks last week, would be a very sorry affair compared with what they used to be when the tribes of this district were undiminished by contact with civilization, thirty years ago might frequently have been seen a muster of 600 to 800 blacks at one of their great gatherings, and one of the best “fights” I remember to have seen, took place here some time about the end of 49 and not very far distant from where the one of last week was held. The sides were the Richmond against the Clarence, but among the former were to be found the tribes of the lower Clarence, from Lawrence downwards, with those of Wyan, and the country thence to Casino, and towards the sea coast. On the opposing side were those of this district from Gordon Brook downwards, with the tribes round Grafton fully represented, and they were pretty numerous here in those days. The casus belli was really, I believe, what white people would call chafing. There had been some gossip carried between the tribes for a considerable time, very much in the same manner that pugilistic encounters are worked up between schoolboys, by the go betweens carrying the news of what is said of the other, and as in the latter case, no doubt also in the other, adding a little on every occasion. There were, it is true, sundry private quarrels, to settle the principal, of which were what might be termed family affairs. A young fellow for instance, belonging to the Grafton tribe, had induced a young damsel from the Richmond to elope with him in preference to remaining in her own bounds, and becoming the partner of a somewhat older and less acceptable man. In aboriginal, as well as in European life, the course of true love often ran other than smooth. There were several of such love affairs, accounts being on the whole pretty evenly balanced in the matter of gain and loose, but as there was in every tribe one who had to chew the cud of disappointment, he had the right of challenge to wager of battle, and as in the duello, not to exersise this was like non-acceptance of a challenge, an admission of oowardice. “King Tommy,” of Carr's creek, then a youngster,figured as respondent in one these cases, but very few of the others are left today. Every love affair produced a fight, and occasionally two or three, in which sometimes the combatants were of the same tribe,

‍credit: Rodney Morrison

“The annual assembly of the Eastern goldfields tribes is not merely, it appears, for the purpose of performing certain secret rites. It is a court where sundry matters of intense importance, both to individuals and tribes, may be settled. A strain of cynicism may lie excused when experience has shown that with the blacks, as with a superior race, these 'matters' generaly pertain to a woman. Tne proverb connected therewith is as common to the aboriginal as to the white.
The initial ceremonies having been performed, the tribes from the north yesterday afternoon proceeded to the consideration of sterner things. A weak-livered, sneaking member of the Southern Cross tribe had induced or stolen a woman of the north, only fit to mate with the braves thereof. Something had to be done in the matter.
Both sides realised this Yesterday morning the Southern Cross tribe went apart, and a little reconnoitering showed them to be preparing all the paraphernalia of war. The Menzies warriors went away foraging.
In the afternoon signs of approaching conflict were easily apparent.
Scouts brought in word that the Menzies tribe were returning arid were prepared for the offensive.
The Southern Cross braves, with a good idea of tactics, moted out and took possession of a small hill. From this scouts were sent out, while others acted as patrols.
About 3.30 the northern tribes got in sight, coming in in the formation of a square, with the gins dancing wildly round it and exciting their men to be brave and wipe the enemy out of sight.
On the Southern Cross side both warriors and gins performed war dances, afterwards forming up in order of battle.
Quite on a mediaeval plan actual fighting started with a single combat between the man with whom the abducted woman was living and her husband.
Taunts and war-cries were silenced, suddenly by a boomerang flashing suddenly out from the Menzies champion. It flew through the air and came straight to its quarry, inflicting an ugly flesh wound about two inches deep.
The Menzies crowd were delighted. Their joy was short-lived. The warrior, seeing the result of his throw, turned to join his companions.
Before he could get over any distance his opponent had launched a heavy war spear from a worn era. Though at a distance of 25 yards, it caught the Menzies man fair in the fleshy part of the back, piercing it like a dum dum bullet, and bringing the quarry down as quickly.
The tribes then made a rush at one another, and a melee would have ensued had not the Boulder tribe sailed in with waddies, and in true constable fashion restored some semblance of order.
Afterwards some nine single combats took place, the finish of each being distinguished by the fond embraces of the combatants, as proof of mutual respect and friendship. The main body had another general mix up, in which waddies, spears and boomerangs were freely used. The Boulder tribe was again in evidence as peacemakers, and finally the tribes desisted, carrying their wounded with them. They squatted down with each other to compare notes and exchange flatteries.
The Menzies tribe, the wildest of all the natives, could not let matters rest in this fashion, and showed their sense of superiority, or whatever else it might be called, by refusing to take part in the festivities when the moon rose last night.
The woman, the cause of all the excitement, it has been arranged, shall go back to her former wigwam, where, it was learned, a sound thrashing awaited her. As far as could be ascertained there was not much sympathy with her, which, perhaps, makes another link in the chain between black and white.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

“The fellow tribesmen of the two aborigines who were plundered in Maryborough during a recent drunken bout demand satisfaction. They belonged to a Cootharaba tribe, with whom are associated the Brisbane blacks. Accordingly, a challenge was sent to the Maryborough natives and accepted, the convincing ground being selected near the river on the Maryborough side of Owanyllla. The opposing forces, numbering nearly 400 fighting men, with their gins as baggage carriers, met on Thursday afternoon, and after a preliminary dance the fighting commenced next morning. The conflict continued until near mid-day, when the sun or the Brisbane men made It "too hot" for the Maryborough warriors, who dispersed in as disorderly a manner as though persuaded by natlve police. Nobody was killed, and the wounds Inflicted were very trifling. We believe an armistice has been arranged until Maryborough can draw reinforcements from Frazer's Island and Bundaberg. Saltwater Creek is to witness the next meeting. Meanwhile, the Brisbane blacks are camped somewhere about the One Mile on the Gympie-road.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

“I remember well the old house where I was born,” Mr. William Low said yesterday. "Maroochy House it was called, but now the main road runs right over the spot where the old living-room was. The dense scrub used to stop only at our back and front doors when I was a kiddie there. One of my earliest memories is of a fight between about 200 blacks just out in front of the old homestead. I can almost see them to-day. Afterwards I learned they were two different tribes–the Gympie and the Maroochy blacks. There were spears and boomerangs and tomahawks flying through the air, and a noise that could have been heard miles away through the quiet forests. It was purely an inter-tribal affair, and they did not seem to take any notice of us.””

““I was but four years old at the time, but I can see it all as vividly as if it were but yesterday. The room of one house fronts to the road. The occupants are the owners of all three cottages and their families. There are three grown men; the rest are womenfolk and children. Each man has a double-barrelled muzzle-loading gun, and on the table around which the women are seated are more guns, as well as ramrods, tins of percussion caps, and red-coloured powder flasks.

The menfolk are stern and quiet — the mothers bear anxious countenances. Even the children play quietly, unconsciously subdued by the atmosphere of tension about them.

I remember how I stood on the tips of my toes and peeped through one of the circular openings of our ‘fort.’ Before my eyes was enacted a fierce tribal battle, and looking towards the top of the hill, where my old school now stands, I saw native women and children building their gunyahs. Other women were standing beside their warrior husbands, collecting the spears that the foe had thrown, and handing them to their menfolk to hurl back at the enemy.

‍
Many natives were down on both sides, and bleeding freely from their wounds, and the wailing of women rose and fell like the chorus of a Greek tragedy. The worst fighting took place not more than 100 yards from our doorway.

Mingled with the screams of the women and the children was a cry of exultation as the spear of some warrior found its target in the body of his opponent.

‍
The ravine separating the tribes narrowed and shallowed towards the lower end of the street, and at this spot the warriors were clubbing each other with nullah-nullahs and waddies. They fought each other up the roadway until they were on the pathway outside the house.

Some of the blacks were known to me. I had put broken victuals into the dilly bags of the gins, and had heard the pidgin talk of the piccaninnies in our own yard. The strong hand of my father dragged me away, and after looking through the aperture he placed his muzzle loader in position — just as a precaution. Only a month before a settler had been attacked by blacks at the One Mile.

‍
Late in the afternoon, as the sound of savage combat faded away over the brow of the hill, our little garrison ate a meal of home-made bread and corned beef, with butter from the churn, at the handle of which the whole family had taken a turn. What sweet butter it was, too!— butter placed on thick slices of bread on which generous slices of corned beef had been spread — eaten with a gusto of appetite that bespoke strong and vigorous health.

‍
That night fires twinkled on the hill top and down the gully. The combatants had proclaimed a temporary truce, but with the sunrise the battle was renewed, and my mother found me in my nightdress with my eyes glued to the peephole. There were no such things in those days as pyjamas! Both male and female, young and aged, wore that garment of white calico called a night dress.

‍
The fighting, the yelling, and moaning were repeated all that day, but not a native was killed. After fighting ceased for the day the warriors fraternised. The next morning saw only the town blacks on the hillside. The enemy tribesmen had departed to their own hunting grounds, and peace reigned once more.””

‍

Pre-Colonial Massacre

Aboriginal people say that a long time ago, before white man came, their ancestors lived at Tnorala. They hunted, camped and performed ceremonies here.

One day, early in the morning, a man climbed up the rocks, hunting for kangaroo.  When he came back, he found all his people, men, women and children dead, killed.  He knew that the kadaitcha men had done it.  

This man went off and told the rest of the family, who lived along the nearby ranges.  These people followed those kadaitcha men, who came from the desert country, to the south of here.  The kadaitcha didn't make it back to their community.  They were killed by the avenging family.

After the massacre, Tnorala became what Aboriginal people call a 'sorry' place: no-one has lived here since because of sorrow over the lost family.  It is out of respect for the people that passed away here that the Aboriginal custodians ask visitors not to camp at Tnorala.  

See Massacre of Running Waters for similarities. So estimate 30 family dead and 4 murderers avenged.

“Who were the two tribes that were supposed to be fighting ?
— (...) The South Burnett against Stanley River (...)
— How many would be in each tribe ?
— Oh, over a hundred (...)
— Was anybody hurt ?— Oh yes!
— Badly ?
— Oh yeah, they had to carry them out (...)
— Anybody killed?
— No, but I saw the spear. My (...) been speared. The two men been speared (...)”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

Summary : One of the last big Aboriginal battles of 700 Aborigines in the Wide Bay area resulting in 30 deaths.

‍

Details :

“(…) Sandy, King of the Moretons, led his black army of approximately 300, including the female pack train, into battle against the Wide Bay abo.s', in 1873, at the Glasshouse Mountains (…) This battle proved to be the last dinkum abo. scrap to take place on our eastern coast south of Wide Bay, which is 150 miles north of Moreton's Bay (…)

At the time when King Werriean, ruler of the Brisbane river tribes, with his small detachment of some twenty or so black warriors, were encamped on my Dad's farm, supposed to be engaged in scrub brushing, there were five sugar mills operating on the river (…) I remember the fateful evening as if but one night had passed in that distant time and the 56 years that have since run between, when the courier came from the head-quarters camp of the good King Sandy, situated in a black man's honey-bee line of flight, 30 miles distant towards the east, pitched on the old (Toora-kerry-kerry) camping ground of their ancient ancestors, who, from the earliest days of the first centuries, danced the rites of the totem-pole (…) And, although Werriean and his warriors were loth to depart from, their fattening ground on our old home farm they were soldiers of the King. No one saw the runner come, although they all knew quite well who and what he was, none took the slightest notice of him until he produced his token of authority, to wit, the "pumorriay," or the King's seal, known to us in pidgin English as the yabber-stick, without which a King's messenger will not be recognised as such. Much has been written from time to time round what some writers, who claim a, knowledge of aboriginal customs, are pleased to term the mysterious written messages that pass from king to king, or from his royal nibs to the Camps of his subjects. This is all bunk. This yabber-stick, as we may herein call it, has no power of speach. It is only as the king's seal upon the runner's despatches. When a runner is despatched from His Majesty's gunyah, he carries his life in his dilly-bag until his return, for, should he lose this yabber-stick or royal seal, the penalty is death. When the messenger has shown his token of authority on arrival at his destination, he then verbally delivers his message. (…) However, after the arrival of the King's messenger the camp of Werriean was the scene of activity, as, on the morrow, so the orders ran, Werriean was to march forward and connect with the main army (at the Pine River, south of Brisbane) led by King Sandy himself, who, for close upon half a century now, has slept in peace in that forest glade, the burying ground of thousands of kings. We all turned out next morning to see the warriors start. All were in marching order: — a flowing' shirt-tail and red painted legs — fancy meeting that on a Brisbane street to-day. As is the custom, the gins were converted into the baggage train; Lizzy, in accordance with her high rank, was given the honor of the major burden. (…) At this hostile meeting on the battle-field of the Glass-house Mountains, the last dihkum scrap south of Wide Bay and which, gave rise to that black man's legend, the "Weellabala Mollayan" (the spirit eagle), there were camped in the vicinity for two weeks or more upwards of 700 aborigines. (…)

(…) However, this battle of which I write — the , last dinkum shindy south of Wide Bay — was in reality of a different nature to any that had gone before in the memory of the oldest white settlers (…) Most aboriginal battles which' take place between tribes of different districts, and at a fixed time and place — taking months of preparation, mobilisation and war declaration — are, as a rule, of a sham fight nature, generally ending in a big corroboree in which, "after the treaty,' all take part. It is the duty of the gins to run and pick up all the spent amunition — spears, boomerangs, throwing sticks, etc.— after they have been hurled, and to act as a field ambulance. (…) In this battle there were about 30 killed and wounded (…)”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

"On the flat country on which now stands the Ipswich railway workshops, the Logan River tribe of blacks came into conflict with the boys of the Brisbane River tribes. That was nearly 80 years ago.

Nullanullas, spears, and boomerangs were freely used by both sides, and there were many casualties," was another recollection of Mr. Gardlner.

The battle resulted in a decisive win for the local lads. the invaders from Logan being driven from the area.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

“There were large camps of aboriginals at different spots about Ipswich, and Mr. Watson well remembers several extensive fights, especially those that took place on the present site of the Queen's Park, when several hundred blacks fought so wildly ' that, many deaths resulted, and wounded blacks could be seen all over the locality. ”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

“In the year 1852 several tribes, it is said, made the valley between the Limestone Ridge on the one side and the present Land Court and the Courthouse, in East-street, the rendezvous of their tribal battles which lasted for several days, during which many were slain, and I think I am correct in saying that the term "Coffin Holes," a swamp situated between the Old Racecourse ("Ploughed Station") and Blackstone, owes its origin to a very determined battle, which took place thereabouts between the different aboriginal tribes, then "camped" in the vicinity of Ipswich, and the killed were buried near that spot, the Coffin Holes.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

“The aborigines have had several fights in this vicinity lately, the Brisbane, Limestone, and Tent-hill tribes having met to adjust their usual grievances, several were wounded, but on the last evening of the fray, the well known "Uncle Marny" received a severe spear wound on the chest,of which, however, he is recovering.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

“Several tribes of the aborigines, amongst whom were Bunya Bunya and Amity Point blacks, have had another fight in this district, hundreds of them having met on Friday and Saturday last at the Ploughed Station.

‍No lives were lost, though many were severely wounded. Some of those who were known to be active in the murders or Messrs. Uhr and Gregor were amongst the number, but they took good care not to approach the township.

I have not heard the reason of the present fight.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

“On the Herberton Tableland are a number of ‘Boora’ grounds, where tribal ceremonies were, held, and about two miles from the town of Herberton is one such spot which was used regularly by the blacks for this purpose. A resident of the town told me recently that when a child, she with a companion, hearing of the fight, made their way to the scene of it. The two children crept as near as they dared and climbed a tree to better observe the proceedings. It was very exciting, and they shivered in their tree fearing that they might be discovered. So they were, for a policeman came along from Herberton, and ordered them to run home. On this occasion five natives were killed.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

Summary : Large planned pitched battle with 4 wounded.

‍

Detail:

“One of those now rare occurrences took place on Tuesday and Wednesday last, upon the Water Reserve, Lower Southgate, the contending parties being the Lower Richmond River tribe, in alliance with those of Ulmarra and the Lower Clarence; and their opponents the Grafton tribe, aided by the Lawrence and Upper Clarence blacks. The blacks have been assembling for some time past for this particular event, and although those assembled did not number so largely as in former times, the surroundings were not shorn of the ceremonies with which events of this kind have been conducted by the aboriginal holders of this country for one cannot risk saying how many ages. To add to the importance of the recent declaration of war and its resultant battle, the ceremonies were accompanied by the more important one of the "Bora," or mysteries connected with the initiation of young lads to man's estate. For some weeks past preparations have been going on for the battle that was to decide a dispute, the intricacies of which we have not been able to unravel. The movements of the aboriginals in the neighbourhood of the contemplated battle-ground naturally created some interest amongst the white public in the vicinity, with the result that quite a number of those were present to witness the battle. One of those has written us a brief outline of what took place. The first of the battle took place on Tuesday afternoon, the concluding events being left over, as is usual, until the following morning. About 2 p.m. the Grafton army, quietly encamped with their friends, received intimation that the enemy was approaching. No sooner was this known than "Old King Tommy," of Carr's Creek, began to chant a defiant war song. This was taken up in admirable rhythm and time by some 15 to 20 women, and about half a dozen children. This chanting—which, judging by the attitudes and expression, was intended to convey the utmost contempt for the enemy, and to hurl defiance in their teeth—was kept up till nearly 4 o'clock. About this time could be heard in the distance first a sounding "whizz," and shortly afterwards an echo of stamping feet. Immediately after this was seen advancing through the timber about 30 stalwart-looking black-fellows, painted in all colours, and profusely decorated with feathers. No sooner did they come in view than they charged towards the site of the intended battle, moving almost as one man, such *** step did they keep. Having arrived *** ground, the Richmond tribe chanted *** song, and forming into a circle *** the points of their spears together, *** apparently of their unity in defending the other's cause. By this time the Grafton army had *** ready for the fray. Irritated *** the words of the war song, a *** stepped out and hurled a boomerang at the enemy. This was no sooner done than a splendid charge was made, and equally good defence—spears, boomerangs and paddymelon sticks flying in all directions; the men on each side showing their quickness of eye and agility of body in evading the flying missiles and implements of primitive warfare. There was really a good rally, each side well maintaining its ground, fortunately without any blood-shed. After a sharp contest both sides, apparently content with the prowess displayed, gradually retired, leaving the battle field unoccupied. By this time the shades of evening had fallen to such an extent that it was deemed advisable apparently to suspend hostilities until the morning. These were commenced about 10 a.m. with an attack by the Grafton tribe on the camp of their opponents, with the result that there was a general rush to arms, and a determined encounter took place, but terminating as on the previous evening without loss of blood. The rally was kept up for some time, until at last the Grafton tribe were driven back towards their own camp. After a rest of about half an hour, which both sides were certainly entitled to, one of the Richmond tribe, fully armed and gorgeously decorated, advanced in front of his companions and challenged one from the Grafton tribe to single combat. This, however, was not accepted, but in reply to the champion's remarks— which, no doubt, were far from being of a complimentary character—a charge was made and a great rally ensued, during which George, of Lawrence, had a spear driven through his arm, while one of his companions received a similar wound in the foot. This put the Richmond army on its metal. A desperate charge was made upon the Grafton tribe, during which two of the tribe were wounded, the Richmondites retiring unscathed. During these charges the gins and picaninnies became very excited, and appeared to be using the language to spur on their respective sides to deeds of daring if not desperation. Shortly after this the Grafton notability, Lazy Bill, stepped out from the Grafton ranks as champion, challenging any *** Charlie, who after a fine set too, and a good display of offence and defence, was compelled to succumb to Lazy Bill's superior skill. Charlie's place was next taken by a left-handed Joe, the latter speedily taking his opponent down. This was followed by a challenge from the Richmond side, in which Mick, of Lawrence, challenged Jimmy Avery, of Copmanburst. The latter, however, did and retired to their respective sides. This result brought out Jimmy Avery with a challenge to Harry, from Chatsworth. There was evidently a considerable amount of feeling between these two. Having thrown all their weapons at each other they closed, *** nulla nulla's. Jimmy succeeding *** twice upon Harry's head, *** claimed the victory. Harry, however, did not feel the effects very much, for when some of the white lookers on proceeded to his camp to see the extent of his wounds, they found him quite jolly laughing as if nothing had occurred. The blows, however which he received, would probably have killed a white person, or at least have given him a tremendous headache. *** *** *** final combat between Kangaroo Harry and Woodburn Jimmy, in which before *** close quarters, Harry succeeded in wounding his opponent. This concluded the *** *** the battle of Southgate, the *** *** in favor of the Richmond tribe. *** decorations of the aborigines—men and women—and their general *** have been something *** *** being *** of the battle, the *** of one of the gins who was standing close to a fire, caught alight, but with the quickness of her race she stripped out of her dress like a streak of lightning, thus escaping being seriously burnt. There were several whites present much interested in the proceedings, which in future years will be a thing of the past. During the last charge one gentleman (Mr. W. C. Doust, if we mistake not) was struck rather severely on the head by a boomerang, which came swirling round where he and others were standing deeply interested in the movements and manoeuvres of the blacks. ”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

‍

Summary : A staged clash between a number of tribe

‍Detail: 

“In 1869, when we lived at Bellevue, near Grafton, parties of blacks from the upper river were frequent and interesting callers. One day numbers of them passed, and King Billy, of Yulgilbar, told us that a big fight had been arranged, to take place not far distant, the opposing forces being men from Gordon Brook and Yulgilbar against those from Grafton and the Lower Clarence.

He was very, anxious that we should see it, and promised that when the time was fixed he would send a guide to conduct us to the battle-ground.

‍
King Billy was over 6 feet in height, of magnificent physique, and carried himself with a truly royal dignity and urbanity, even when clad in only a waist belt and a large red handkerchief. He was, moreover, respected by both whites and blacks for his honesty, sobriety, and trustworthiness.

An English sportsman who stayed at Yulgilbar in the early 70's wrote in most complimentary terms of King Billy to the English newspaper, 'The Field,' specially mentioning his great strength and endurance, and his skill , as guide and tracker on kangaroo shooting expeditions.

‍
Early, one morning, a day or two after our invitation to view the fight, King Billy's son arrived to act as guide, and our party, consisting of my parents, our man and maid, my brother and myself, was soon ready for the bush track.

‍
We were all on horseback, except our sable guide, a superbly built young warrior, who strode along in front. He was naked save for a belt and apron of spun opossum fur. The belt held his tomahawk. In his right hand he carried a long spear, and in his left a sheaf of war boomerangs. It was about four miles to the battle ground, an open lightly timbered flat, down one side of which ran a strip of dense and beautiful Northern Rivers brush.

At one point a patch of the brush jutted out, and here cattle had made a camp, and had trodden down the undergrowth, leaving a dense canopy of interwoven branches over head. Under this canopy we were conducted, and told that this spot had been chosen by King Billy for the white spectators, as they could see everything, and yet be quite safe from stray spears and boomerangs.

Here we were joined by a young settler and his wife from their home not far away. Some distance to the left we could see signs of the upper river encampment, and soon a party of elderly gins moved out into the open not far from us, and another party of viragos appeared from the lower river camp in the opposite direction.

And then a wordy warfare began, and volleys of abuse were pelted ; from side to side.
They all carried green bushes, with which they vigorously thrashed themselves, apparently as a stimulus to fiercer and more furious invective. This went on for some time, until the up-river men began to move into battle order, almost opposite our viewpoint, and a distant shouting heralded the approach of the enemy.

About a hundred strong, they came at a prancing run, two by two, in a long column, lifting the feet high and chanting as they ran, each man with his long spear at slope over his shoulder. At a signal the column suddenly split, one half wheeling to right and the other to left, the leaders, followed by the rank and file, each describing a perfect half-circle.

When the points of the half-circles met the line was straightened out until the two by two column was reformed, when it promptly halted. As it did so, the spears were crossed and met overhead with a clear and ringing clash. It was, altogether, a pretty manoeuvre, beautifully executed.

‍
Following this, the opposing forces formed two long lines opposite one another and with a space of about 40 to 50 yards between, a space which speedily became a medley of leaping forms and flying spears and boomerangs, while the forest rang with yells and cries from the combatants, whose quick, keen sight, and suppleness of limb enabled them to dodge, and, with their little shields, ward off most of the missiles in an almost miraculous manner.

Quite close to us, one young warrior won admiration and applause from the white onlookers for a remarkably agile feat of arms. Three boomerangs came whirling at him almost simultaneously. Two he deftly turned to right and left with his little shield, and, leaping high, allowed the third to pass harmlessly under him! After charge and countercharge and rally had continued for a time, exhausted nature demanded a rest, so, apparently by mutual consent, hostilities were temporarily suspended.

Two of our party took advantage of the lull to ride out and get the news. They reported that beyond a few bruises and fairly severe flesh wounds, no damage had been done, though so far the up-river army seemed to have got rather the worst of the encounter.

‍
They also told us that Grafton Tommy had challenged a Yuigilbar brave to single combat, and the duel was to be staged close to our ‘coign of vantage,’ so that we might have a good view of it, and this information set us all alive and agog with excitement and expectancy.

‍
Presently there was a movement in our direction, and the two combatants stood forth, their comrades on either side standing a little in the back ground. Big, muscular men both of them, Tommy especially being of fierce and sinister aspect.

‍
At a signal, they hurled their spears, and then several boomerangs, and when these were exhausted, and had done no harm, they drew their tomahawks and charged. Chop, chop, chop, went the little axes, but all the blows were caught on the shields or warded off. Suddenly, they each stepped back a pace or two, flung axe and shield to the ground, and, rushing forward, closed in a desperate grapple, apparently determined to decide the issue by an appeal to nature's weapons. Backwards and forwards they reeled and strained and struggled, but, so well matched were they in strength, that neither seemed able to gain an advantage, until, without warning, the onlookers were startled by the sight of crimson streams cascading down, the Yulgilbar champion's back. Comrades rushed in and separated the antagonists, and it was found that Grafton Tommy had a short stabbing knife concealed in his thick mat of hair, and with this he had reached over and stabbed his opponent in the back — a treacherous act, and quite outside aboriginal codes of the game.

‍
Here this story must end, for the sight of blood at such short range was too much for our womenfolk, who voted the incident ‘savage’ and ‘cruel.’ Therefore, a hasty retreat was ordered, and the horses’ heads were turned homeward.

My feelings and those of my brother at being dragged away at, to us, such a highly interesting stage of the proceedings, may be better imagined than described. We wondered what women expected to see a fight if it wasn't blood. In a day or two we heard that the down-river and Grafton natives were eventually the victors, though the tables were turned at another fight some months later.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

Summary : The Goulburn tribe come to Melbourne to fight the Jacky Jacky and Moridalloc tribes over a revenge/payback dispute involving a Barrabool native. Fight takes place on Melbournes Southbank.

‍

Detail :

“There was evidently plenty of excitement owing to the numerous rows between the various tribes of blacks, and Mr Sutch gave "The Herald" man a very vivid account of one of these fights, which he himself witnessed, the battle field being on the south bank of the Yarra, close to where Prince's Bridge now is, and just west of St. Kilda road.

‍

The participants were the Goulburn tribe to the number of between three and four hundred, the Jacky Jacky and Mor- dialloc tribes.

All were in battle array, painted and pipeclayed in hideous fashion. When within about 200 yards of the others the Goulburn warriors formed a sort of crescent, and their chief went along the line haranguing them. After this each man stooped down and dug a hole in the soil with his boomerang, and the earth which he had scooped out was on a given signal, hurled at the enemy, the performance being accompanied by a series of appalling yells. The other tribes responded with signs of defiance, and then the serious part of the performance began.

A man of the Barabool tribe, who had to be given up for some murder, was brought forward with his shield on his arm, and the Goulburn tribe commenced to hurl spears and boomerangs at him. How that agile native dodged the whizzing weapons, catching some on his shield and ducking to avoid others, is most graphically told by Mr Sutch; indeed his story would rank high as a bit of word painting. After dusky honor had been satisfied with regard to the gentleman of Barrabool extraction, a general battle royal ensued between the tribes, which resulted In the loss of three lives, one man whom Mr Sutch clearly saw receiving a spear right through his thigh, and a horrible jagged wound was Inflicted, and the only way of removing the spear was to break It off short und pull it through the limb. This man subsequently succumbed to his injuries.

The Barrabool gentleman evidently had a desire to get level with his foes, for he afterwards came near where the Goulburn warriors were dancing a corroborree and hurled a spear which pierced the lung of a Goulburn man, so that when the spear was withdrawn it brought a portion of the lung wlth it.

Mr Sutch quaintly remarks that he of Barrabool subsequently decamped. ”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

“Soon after the sheep washing was over the McIntyre Brook tribe came in with the intention of having a tribal fight. They met the Canning Downs tribe about five hundred yards above the gate-house on the Warwick side going to Canning Downs on a very dull cloudy Sunday morning with every appearance of rain. The latter, the writer thinks, made them postpone the fight till the Monday morning, when they met on the Warwick side of Murphy's old bridge and had one of the most desperate fights ever known to the earliest pioneers of the Downs.

From the blacks' own account there were three killed and a great number badly wounded. That finished their quarrels and they all decided to hold a large corroboree and make friends again, as they seldom cherished animosity to each other after the fight was over. ”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

Summary : Large battle of '300' killed.

[Ed: This is a hugh number and very unusual for Aboriginal battles. It was reported in 1921 many years after the event so we need to treat the number '300' cautiously].

Detail :

“One of the most fierce battles which ever took place, between the aboriginals in Queensland was caused by the Wonkomarra tribe of the Bulloo River hunting wild ducks in territory occupied by a tribe which inhabited the Lower Bulloo.

Their method of declaring war on this occasion was different from that of other tribes. They sent a herald to the enemy stating that a fight was to take place. The life of this herald was held sacred, and he was allowed to return to his tribe. In the fight which followed it is believed that over 300 blacks were killed.”

credit: Ray Kerkhov

Summary : A series of 'battles' that started with a womans's abduction. This series of battles, taken together, might be called a 'war'. The total 'war' death toll was said to be 'over 200' killed.

Detail :

“Sixty years back the Larrakia tribe of the Port Darwin district were the most powerful tribe in the Territory. Wars with neighbouring tribes were frequent, and generally originated from the abduction of women. On one occasion a member of the Woolna tribe who roamed over the lower portion of the Adelaide River stole a young- female from a camp inhabited by the Larrakia natives. A party of the latter at once set out in pursuit, but before they had proceeded many miles they were ambushed by a large party of Woolna warriors, and were all massacred. This slaughter led to a series of battles between both tribes, and over 200 blacks were killed. Eventually the woman was returned to her tribe, and peace was declared at a great corroboree held between Port Darwin and the Adelaide River.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

Summary : A revenge attack due to sorcery that lead to a massacre of 80 men, women and children . Many of the women had also been raped. This massacre is an example of the injustice of 'primitive' sorcery where totally innocent victims are killed based on the accusation of a perceived 'crime' over which they could have had no control. [To kill the 80 Pegulloburra, we estimate that at least 40 Mungerra warriors would be have been in the killing party].

Detail :

“In 1874 the Mungerra tribe, which at that time inhabited the watershed and upper portions of the Cape River (Q.) had reason to believe that the death of their chief Multheroo was caused by the sorcery of a member of the Pegulloburra tribe, who inhabited the country 50 to 100 miles distant.

The night after the old man's death a party set out after the burial, mad for bloodshed, and marching for about 40 miles they came upon a party of the Pegulloburra natives. As dawn was near they concealed themselves during the day and at night crept up to the camp when the in mates were asleep. The men and children were butchered before they could rise from the ground, and the women, after further atrocities were also slain.

Years back, when a boy, I met an old gin who escaped from the massacre, and she stated that about 80 of her tribe were killed. This woman was stunned by a club and left for dead, but towards morning she recovered sufficiently to crawl to a waterhole where she bathed her wounds and then returned by slow stages to the main body of her tribe.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

“Extermination battles seem to be completely lacking. I have only one example of a nocturnal raid, which I heard from Baker, who lived for 14 years among the Blacks. The raid was foiled. Those attacked pursued the enemy tribe and killed many, including men, women and children. This usually doesn’t happen, women and children being spared.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

Summary : The Uqlab Creek battle near Maryborough Qld in which 500 Mount Bobble natives routed an alliance of 1000 from three opposing tribes, leading to the death of the 'King" of Fraser isalnd and 12 other warriors from each side.

Detail :

“On the first day of January, 1862, I had the privilege of witnessing a pitched battle between the tribe [Mount Bopple] and fully a thousand picked warriors from Fraser Island, Port Curtis, and the Burnett. The battle took place in what was then the old township of Maryborough, just on the site of the present water reserve of Ulqlab Creek.

I had seen but little aboriginal warfare before that date, but have witnessed a great number of regular field days since then, and must say these latter were incomparable to that great battle, when one regards either the multitude of the slain or the magnitude of the numbers engaged.

It was calculated that the allies had not less than a thousand warriors of all arms; while the Boppleites had close on five hundred men, and what they lacked in numbers they certainly made up in manly physique and martial bearing.

Hostilities commenced about 3 p.m., and did not cease till near sundown, when the King of Fraser Island was laid low by a spear right through the abdomen. About a dozen other warriors were killed on both sides, but the allies were completely routed. They appeared to be quite crestfallen, and did not offer the least resistance when a Bopple chief, attended by a crowd of fighting men, rushed on to claim the young princess, daughter of the alien monarch, or whilst, as afterwards happened, they carried her away in triumph. ”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

Summary : An example of a 'parrying' clash or battle in which much bravado is shown, but which results only in a few bruises or flesh wounds, and the wounded pride of the retreating tribe.

Detail :

“The D. D. Gazette has received particulars of an aboriginal battle which took place at the beginning of the last month out on the Barcoo.

One day two tribes – the Langlo and the Blackwater – met. Coolness had existed between them for the past five or six years, and no sooner had they spied one another than war was decided upon. They carefully advanced towards each other until the Langlo had invaded the Blackwater's territory.

The latter objected to this intrusion, and expressed their objections in a rather forcible manner by throwing their boomerangs in the midst of the advancing army! (There were about 200 on each side.) The boomerangs flew round for a while, when getting tired of this distant mode of warfare, the opposing forces rushed at each other. Boomerangs gave way to nullah nullahs – so did four or five of the Blackwaters, who, soon discovering they were losing the battle, fled ignominously into the bush, leaving the Langlos masters of the field.

The victors revelling in the triumph held a grand corroboree on the ground, and continued to hold them in various places as they marched through the county.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

Summary : A 'Great Fight' between about 500 coastal Bribe, Molrooben and other tribes and 700 of the mountain wild tribes of Beppo-Jackeroos and Peak Mountain. The detailed description of this battle by the settler eye-witness "J.W." is in terms that makes us think that perhaps the structure of traditional Aboriginal battles was not unlike that of a typical  European battle of the 17th or 18th Century?

Detail :

“I began to think that I had unintentionally given offence to my gay Lothario, as some time elapsed before I saw him. About three months after this occurrence, I was standing under my verandah, when I saw a black-fellow on the opposite side of the river trying his spears, shield, bomerangs, and nulla nulla together, which he placed on his head: he then took the dry and sapless trunk of a withered mimosa, placed it under his chest, and soon reached the wharf.

‍
I found it was my friend Papoonya, who walked into my quarters in his usual independent manner, shook hands with me, and said that there was to be a “cobora mumcule” (great fight) between the Coast Tribes and the Beppo Jockeroos (Mountain Wild Black- fellows), that Eulopé the chief of his tribe, with all the chosen warriors, would arrive before sundown, and that the fight would come off on the following day.

He did not make any allusion to his lady-love, as they never speak of the dead. I had often heard him boast of the superiority of his tribe, and I knew Eulopé, who had acquired the "soubriquet" of Buonaparte, for his daring courage and opposition to the military when they first took possession of Amity Point, to be all that he had represented him, and, as I had never witnessed a "turn-up" between the Aborigines, I resolved to accompany them to the scene of action, but did not mention my intention to Papoonya.

‍
Eulopé and his party did not arrive until the following day, when about sixty of them came to my quarters, the remainder of the tribe with the gins and piccaninnies having proceeded by a different route to the spot where the struggle was to take place. I was surprised at the superior stature and great muscular power of this party, whose personal appearance quite eclipsed that of the Light Company of the 39th, which composed the Detachment. I furnished them with plenty of sweet potatoes and maize, and they bivouacked in the open air, in front of my quarters. They were in high spirits, confident of success, and spoke of the Mountain tribes with contempt.

‍
On the following morning I filled their nets with potatoes and maize, and told them that I should go to see them beat the Jockeroos, which greatly pleased them. Although I was personally known to most of the coast tribes, and many of the mountaineers, whose friendship I had gained by a few trifling but well-timed presents of tomahawks and fish-hooks, I deemed it prudent to see to my arms, having on several occasions come in collision with the Jockeroos in my hunting and botanical trips. I therefore loaded both barrels with ball, and put a pair of pistols into my belt, in case my friends should be defeated, or I should be separated from them. Thus prepared I knew that I was able to cope with any party I might fall in with.

‍
We then started, and after walking for about an hour and a half, we reached the ridge at the eastern extremity of the plain at the base of Taylor's Range, when a scene of unbroken and unclouded beauty presented itself, altogether so different to anything I had ever seen, that I was rivetted to the spot. It was one of those magnificent days seen only in Australia. The glorious sun rode triumphantly in all his majesty and splendour, imparting life and health to all around, and his rays tinged the foliage and wild flowers with every diversity of light and shade ; the air was redolent of perfume from the aromatic shrubs with which the skirts of the plain abounded ; the sky was cloudless, and of that deep azure tint peculiar to that beautiful country and the "sunny south;" the trees were motionless, and all nature was at rest, except man, who was busily occupied in devising the destruction of his fellow-man, for some fancied insult. The plain was of considerable extent, thinly wooded, and bounded on the west by Taylor's Range, and on the base of which the Mountaineers had encamped. It was admirably adapted for a battlefield; and I must confess that, when I saw the Jockeroos I began to entertain doubts as to the result of the battle, from their formidable appearance and apparent numerical superiority.

‍
As I was personally known to many of the most celebrated warriors belonging to the Mountain tribes, I resolved on crossing the plain to inspect their preparations for the forth, coming battle; and having apprised Eulopé of my intentions, I proceeded to the Jockeroo camp. They were fully prepared for the deadly struggle, sanguine of success, and much better provided with war spears, which were made of rosewood, and thrown without the wamerah, than my friends. A more formidable looking fellow than Moppe I never saw. He was about forty years old, upwards of seven feet high, beautifully proportioned, and the muscles of his upper arms reminded me of the gnarled trunk of an oak. He spoke with contempt of my friends, and said that he would beat Eulopé and make him carry bungwall like a gin.

‍
After I had gratified my curiosity, I returned to the camp of my friends. During my absence the gins had arrived loaded with bungwall (a fern, blechnum cartilagineum) the root of which, when pounded and baked, is not a bad substitute for bread, but very astringent, guanas, snakes, emus, kangaroos, fish, ducks, turkeys, flying foxes, &c, which were thrown carelessly on the ground. The piccaninnies were running about, looking like so many imps of darkness, and gazed at me with astonishment and terror. The men were busily occupied in painting and adorning their persons, some of whom had a most terrific appearance.

‍
On approaching Eulopé, I found that he had finished his toilet. His body was lubricated with emu oil and pounded charcoal, a rush was thrust through the cartilage of the nose, his long hair was carefully tied up in a knot, into which a bunch of the yellow feathers of the white cockatoo was inserted ; his breast, arms, and thighs, had been anointed with the gum that exudes from the eucalyptus, and then covered with the most brilliant feathers of the red shoulder, king, and blue mountain parrots; and as he stood before me with his contan (shield) on his left arm, his war spears in his right hand, and nulla nulla and bomerangs in his belt, his tout ensemble was strikingly grand and imposing. On the slightest motion, his great muscular power was fully developed; he trod the earth with the air of a conqueror, and was "the observed of all observers." I felt that the fate of the battle rested on him.

My friend Papoonya came up at this moment, and presented me to his sister, a young and very pretty gin. She was evidently delighted with what was going on, and as much excited as her brother, whose person was unadorned; he wore his long hair loose, which reached to the waist.
I chatted with them for a few minutes, and then went to Eulopé, and told him what Moppe had said. He looked incredulously at me said nothing, but poised a war spear in his hand, which he shook with great violence, and his appearance at that moment was quite demoniacal. The brave old Duke of York, the chief of the settlement tribe, Bribe and Molrooben had arrived with their warriors during my absence.

They probably mustered 500 fighting men, exclusive of the kippers and gins; and Moppe's force consisted of at least 700 approved men.  Understanding that the Pine River and Black Rock River tribes were expected, I suggested to Eulopé and the other chiefs that it would be prudent to defer the combat until they arrived; but they treated the suggestion with scorn. As soon as they had completed their arrangements, Eulopé formed them into line two deep, and they marched into the centre of the plain, shouting their war cry, which reminded me of the discordant cry of the laughing jack ass ; they sat down with their legs crossed under them, and continued silent and motionless, watching the movements of the Mountaineers. The kippers followed in the rear, but the gins and piccaninnies remained on the ridge where they had encamped.

‍
In a few minutes after their arrival, the leaders of the Jockeroos marshalled their warriors in a similar manner, and advanced to meet their foes, shouting the war cry wah-ha! wah-ha! wah-ha! ha! ha! hoo! and when about fifty yards from them they sat down in the same silent and motionless manner. The deathlike silence that followed the terrific shouts of the Jockeroos, had a singularly depressing effect – not a whisper could be heard on either side – the gins and children being equally silent as the warriors. At this moment a mighty black eagle, which had probably been disturbed in his Eyrie on the mountains by the shouts of the hostile parties, soared majestically aloft, occasionally uttering a shrill, piercing cry until he disappeared. I felt instantaneous relief when I heard the noble bird, and my excitement returned.

‍
They continued motionless for some time, but at length six kippers came from the rear of the Settlement Tribes, and approaching within twenty yards of the Jockeroos, they applied the vilest epithets to them, and threw their spears and bomerangs at the Mountain warriors, who warded them off with the most sovereign contempt, without condescending to notice them. The kippers then retreated behind the line of warriors, and the same ceremony was performed by the other party, which was treated with the like indifference by Eulopé and his warriors.

‍
Eulopé then rose, and shouting his war cry drew a bomerang from his belt, and threw it with such force at a gigantic Mountaineer that it split his shield [Note : Their contnars, or shields, are made of the bark of the urtica gigas (stinging tree). They are shaped like the shields of the ancient chivalry of Europe, cover the body, and are impervious to spears], and wounded him so severely in the head that he fell senseless to the earth. A shower of spears and bomerangs followed, which was kept up for some time without any apparent advantage on either side. Eulopé having thrown all his missiles drew his nulla nulla from his belt, and rushed into the thickest of his foes dealing death and destruction around him ; and he was so ably seconded by the brave old Duke of York, Molrooben and Bribe, that the Jockeroos gave way, notwithstanding the desperate efforts of Moppe and Gorowamba, the chief of the Peak Mountain tribe, whose daring courage and noble bearing astonished me : but although the Jockeroos retreated before the impetuous attack of Eulopé and his brave followers, yet the havoc made by Moppe and Gorowamba soon inspirited them, – they rallied round their leaders, and fought with such skill and determination that the Settlement tribes began to retreat, notwithstanding the indomitable bravery and almost superhuman efforts of Eulopé, whose voice was heard above the din of battle, shouting his war cry as he felled to the earth some unfortunate Mountaineer who had dared to oppose him he seemed to possess the attribute of ubiquity, and to restore confidence to his flying and disheartened followers wherever they were most pressed.

At length the Jockeroos drove them across the plain to the foot of the ridge where they had encamped, and the shrieks of grief and despair of the gins, as they slung their children at their backs, and the shouts of exultation of the excited Jockeroos caused the most conflicting emotions. I felt deeply interested in the fate of Eulopé and Papoonya, the latter of whom during the mêlée had fought with as much energy and determination as the most approved warrior; and fearing that the Jockeroos would drive my friends into the Settlement, and capture most of the gins, I resolved on shooting one or two of the most daring of the assailants, when at that moment Eulopé crossed the gigantic Moppe, upbraided him for his contemptuous message, and dared him to  the combat.

‍
As if by mutual consent the warriors around them ceased fighting, and stood resting on their nulla nullas, confident in the skill and prowess of their respective chieftains. When I saw the great disparity in the size of the two heroes, I must confess, that I feared the result would be anything but favorable to Eulopé, who appeared to little advantage as he confronted the gigantic Mountaineer. They were covered with sweat and dust, their personal ornaments were disfigured or lost, and they were evidently suffering from their great exertions during the battle. Yet when they stood opposed to each other, and saw around them, spectators of the combat, the best and bravest of the Coast and Mountain tribes, it had an instantaneous effect on both, and their prostration and exhaustion vanished, with the hope of adding to the fame they had acquired by the defeat of their renowned adversary. A few seconds elapsed before a blow was struck, when Moppe made a feint at the arm of Eulopé (a ruse to put him off his guard) and instantly put in an overhand blow at his head with such prodigious strength that it split his shield asunder, and alighted on his shoulder.

Eulopé, though staggering from the effects of the blow, returned on the head of the giant, which caused the blood to flow freely; but either from his previous exertions, or the effect of the blow he had received, through his shield failing him, it was not effective. I now felt assured of the defeat of Eulopé, as he fought at great disadvantage against his Herculean opponent ; but I was agreeably deceived: he changed his system of fighting, acted entirely on the defensive, and parried every blow with his nulla nulla with such skill and dexterity, that Moppe lost his temper, and rushed on him as if to bear him to the earth by his superior strength ; he did not appreciate the skill of the brave man opposed to him, whose coolness and self-possession, under such trying circumstances, never left him, and proved him worthy of the high opinion entertained of him by his compatriots.

In closing, Moppe attempted to put in a tremendous blow, which Eulopé avoided by stepping aside, and before he could recover himself. Eulopé struck him so fair and forcibly on the head, swinging his body to give effect to the blow, that he fell to the earth to all appearance a dead man. The shouts of joy and exultation of the Settlement tribes were deafening; and a desperate struggle took place for the body of the fallen chieftain, which Gorowamba succeeded in obtaining.

The Jockeroos, dispirited by the fall of their brave leader, gave way before the excited and desperate followers of Eulopé, and retreated across the plain. The gins, who had witnessed the defeat of Moppe, joined in the pursuit, and did good service with their bungwall sticks, which they handled like quarter-staves, and made the heads of many of the retreating Jockeroos rattle.

‍
During the pursuit, Papoonya covered himself with glory, and through which he was made a "black fellow" (warrior) much sooner than he otherwise would have been. His sister Putchinba, who was particularly active in annoying the fugitives, at length attracted the attention of one of them, who turned on her with the most deadly intentions. The pretty maiden defended herself admirably, but must soon have fallen a victim to her temerity, when I called Papoonya's attention to her dangerous situation. He bounded like a kangaroo to the rescue, and placing himself before his sister, upraided the warrior for thus fighting with a wyah gin (young girl), and challenged him to fight. As the youth stood before the warrior, his figure and attitude were exceedingly beautiful – his eyes sparkled – his nostrils were dilated, his chest was violently upheaved, and his nerves were strung to their extreme tension he was the beau ideal of a youthful hero. The grim warrior looked with scorn and contempt on the beardless youth, and would fain have left him, to join his retreating friends; but Papoonya prevented him. Annoyed at what I have no doubt he considered the presumption of a boy, he attacked Papoonya with great violence, showering blow on blow with a rapidity truly astonishing, evidently thinking to kill him off-hand; but the activity and skill of the youth was more than equal to the superior strength of the mountaineer, who vexed at being foiled by a boy, incautiously exposed himself, when Papoonya struck him an overhand blow on the back of the head, and he fell dead at his feet.

I shall never forget the convulsive agony with which the dying warrior grasped the shrubs around him. It was the last effort, and all was still and motionless. Papoonya shouted with joy and exultation over his lifeless foe, and then joined in the pursuit, which was kept up until they had driven the Jockeroos across the mountain. On their return, they plundered the enemy's camp of the towrows (nets) and provisions, and returned in triumph to their encampment.

‍
As the sun was sinking beneath the horizon, when I returned to the camp, I resolved on remaining until the morning, to witness their conduct and bearing after the glorious struggle. The gins were occupied in bringing in the wounded and the dead. They then made fires and fetched water for their lords, when the wailing for the dead commenced. The camp at this time presented one of the most extraordinary spectacles ever witnessed. The warriors were lying in small parties round their fires, prostrate and toil-worn, discussing the events of the battle. The old gins formed a circle round about the camp, and held tea tree bark torches in their hands, by the light of which the young gins were seen beating their heads with stones and cutting their bodies with shells, to denote grief for the dead, and shrieking and yelling in the most frantic and extraordinary manner. As I lay by my fire, watching the dark figures of the poor gins, their frantic movements and unearthly yells almost made me fancy I was in Pandemonium.

‍
Day at length broke, and dispelled the illusions of fancy. I shook hands with both Eulopé and Papoonya, and gave the latter a pocket-knife for his sister Putchinba, who was in a shocking condition, from her self-inflicted wounds, and proceeded to the settlement, highly pleased with the extraordinary spectacle I had witnessed. ”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

“The conflict was very hot; one of the Yan-Mondays was struck on the forehead by a womeran (club), and fell down apparently dead, another was hit in the face, a third had a spear run through his body, and many others were severely wounded. On our side only a few were slightly wounded — it was a fearful fight, spears and womeras flew constantly through the air, at last we could look at it no longer and therefore, with great emotion, went back to our hut.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

Summary : Good description of typical Aboriginal warfare.

“WEAPONS OF THE BLACKS
The Richmond blacks were very peaceful, and their morals were always above reproach, nevertheless they had their tribal wars, and chose as their battle ground what is now the racecourse flat or what we know us Carlton Park. Their chief weapons consisted of spears, boomerangs and "paddymelon sticks'' (a kind of nulla, with a spiked nob at the end). This last-named weapon, was always thrown both in battle and when hunting. For protection the ''heilamon" was carried. This was a kind of wooden shield sometimes beautifully carved and painted, and was used to ward off the showers of boomerangs, spears and paddymelon sticks, which, during a battle, often made the atmosphere far from healthy. The description I am now about to give will serve as a typical example of the way our Lismore or Richmond blacks went "over the top" in the days when Lismore was little more than a camp. It all happened over a young gin, which the Lismore blacks were supposed to have abducted from the Tweed blacks. Seeking redress the warriors from the Tweed marched down to the Richmond, and thus, on the first day of the battle on that racecourse we see the orderly array of Richmond braves drawn up in line as regular as that of any modern army.

TACTICS OF THE WARRIORS
The Lismore blacks chose as their background the hill on which the Dunoon road stands today. The Tweed army was massed, roughly speaking, between the Woodlawn road, and the river which was at their back. Thus the Richmond blacks had their backs against the "wall" as it were. At a given signal the soldiers, (as we may call them) behind the front line of attack threw their boomerangs, forming a kind of barrage, behind which the front lines advanced towards each other with spears and paddymelon sticks. How they were trained to these practically modern tactics, and who led the blacks is a mystery. When the two armies were within throwable distance of each other they stopped, and thus began the battle proper. A constant bombardment of the aforementioned weapons was kept up and there was no lack of ammunition as each side picked up the missiles thrown by the other. Now we come to the strangest part of the whole affair. No man was permitted wilfully to slay an enemy! Chivalry to the utmost point of madness, if you like. Should a Warrior rush on an opponent and slay him, he, the slayer, was put to death by his own men. After three days of this pantomime came the climax. As if by mutual consent hostilities ceased between the armies, and the issue was decided by a fight between the two kings.

DECIDING DUEL
Amid a deadly silence the Richmond king and the Tweed king stepped out in front of their respective armies. Each was armed with a "heilamon" (shield) and an armful of boomerangs. The duel was fought, each king throwing his boomerangs with the unequaled skill of which the aboriginal is so capable and each boomerang was deftly parried with the heilamon. Thus the duel went on until at last the Richmond king ran out of ammunition, and with nothing to save him but his shield. There he stood calmly awaiting the next move of his enemy. And it came in the form of a whirring, boomerang, which struck the shield of the Richmond leader, splitting it in halves, and glancing off it struck the stump of a tree and buried itself there. "Old Hand" is prepared to show anyone interested the exact stump with the piece of broken boomerang still in it, or if it has gone, the exact spot. Thus the three days' battle ended in favour of the Tweed. The narrator's mother was crossing the flat during this battle, and was forced to take refuge in a hollow tree stump. The battle was witnessed, by several whites, who, no doubt, to this day, can vouch for the truth of my narrative.

AFTER THE WAR
Differences being now settled between the Richmond and Tweed, both sides joined in a big wallaby drive through the dense scrub, which then covered the district.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

Summary : A settler's re-counting of an Aboriginal oral history of a 'great raid' by an Aboriginal tribal alliance from the Coastal and Nogoa and Dawson river regions against the inland tribes from the headwaters of the Barcoo, Warrego, and Belyando rivers. The death toll was not recorded but we have set this at a speculated 30.

Detail :

“In the particular part of the west where I spent my " newchumhood " the blacks were quiet.

Their passive attitude was due to several causes. One, I fancy was that the country, being the scantily watered heads of several rivers, the Barcoo, Warrego, and Belyando, was occupied by feebler and more pacific tribes than the big waterholes lower down. The warrior tribes seize the best country and force the weaker clans to take the worse.

Besides, the blacks asserted that some time before the advent of the whites they had been the victims of a great raid. The tribes inhabiting the country lying between the Barcoo and the coast, including the watersheds of the Nogoa and Dawson rivers, had formed a temporary alliance, and their young men, numbering probably a thousand or more, had made a great raid across the Dividing Range, bursting unexpectedly on the unhappy dwellers on the western extremity of the great interior plain.

The latter, taken at a disadvantage and split up according to their usual habit in moderate-sized groups hunting round the chief waterholes and scrubs of their widely extended country, were unable to offer any effective resistance. The men, old women, and children were slain or forced to hide in the depths of the most inaccessible scrubs, and the girls were carried off by the victors.

When the whites came, the Upper Barcoo blacks could not have recovered from this terrible harrying, and must have been still cowed and weak.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

Summary : A surprise attack by the Bogan tribe (600 est) against the Lachlan tribe (300 est) leading to 150 Bogans being killed on the battle field and 'still greater losses' amongst the Lachlan tribe ,which we put at say, 200.

Detail :

“ECHOES OF THE PAST

Their warlike tendencies have ever been apparent, and a battle royal between hostile tribes was by no means an infrequent occurence in the days of long ago. The Argyle and the Lachlan tribes were among those most noted for their hostility, and an account of a tribal feud between the Lachlanders and the Bogan blacks is worth repeating.

The latter had been trespassing on the domain of those of the Lachlan and had left an impression of their visit by stealing two young gins from the encampment. This of course meant war to the knife. As a result three hundred Lachlanders put on their warpaint and started forth in pursuit of the marauders, accompanied by a retinue of old men, gins and picaninies. That they meant mischief was apparent from the hurried nature of their movements. Each warrior had twelve spears and a tomahawk, besides boomerangs, shields, etc. The gins carried all the camp paraphernalia. King Jemmy was the chief of the tribe and as he had worked on a station he could speak a little English.

‍
Their mode of Warfare was different to that of the whites ; they made no formal declaration of war, their object rather being to sneak on the foe and annihilate him in one act if possible. Their war path lay through the country near about where the township of Parkes now stands and they overtook the Bogan blacks at the Bogan river, where they were camped at or near, the present site of the Waterloo homestead, so-called on account of the battle that took place there.

At early dawn, led by a blackfellow named Billy Bust, they made a charge on the sleeping Boganites but before they reached them one of the gins gave the alarm. The Bogans were instantly on their feet, and as their weapons were at hand they were ready for fight immediately. A shower of spears from the Lachlans was not without its effect, as it placed about ten of the foe hors de combat [out of combat due to injury/death], but the return fire of spears was equally effective, and brought the Lachlans to a bait. Then, the boomerangs began to fly as the opposing parties got into closer quarters. The King of the Bogans, seeing he had an advantage of nearly 2 to 1 over his opponents, lost no time in charging forward and making the Lachlans give way, but they rallied again almost immediately, fighting like demons.

‍
By this time a very considerable number of dead and wounded covered the ground, the Bogans apparently being the heaviest losers, but their preponderance of numbers gave them a great advantage, and their chief urging them on forced the Lachlanders to retreat, at first gradually but culminating in a rout, leaving 150 of their number on the battlefield, and the losses of their enemy were still greater.

‍The victors followed the retreating blacks with great determination, slaughtering those that they overtook until after a chase of 50 miles the close of night arrested the carnage. About three score of the Seeing blacks with their gins took another course, thinking they would be safer if away from the main body, but they sadly miscalculated their chances, as early on the third morning their blood-thirsty, pursuers overtook them, when further slaughter took place. The remnant swam the flooded river and escaped that way.

‍
A very, sorry looking lot was the Lachlan tribe when they got back to their old encampment. Only about half of the lubra's and less than one-third of the men returned, and these had clay caked all over their heads, as that was the emblem of mourning for their friends.

The present writer in his youthful days had many opportunities of seeing the burial places of the Argyle tribe of Aborigines at Lansdown, the head centre of the Bradley estate at Goulburn, where numbers of them were buried. It was there that I first saw their peculiar habit of covering their beads with clay or earth of some kind on the death of one of their number, as a symbol of mourning.”

‍

Summary : A settler's eye-witness description of a typical Aboriginal pitched battle. We have just estimated the casulaties at 10.

Detail :

“"BORO" BATTLE AT TOWNSVILLE
Affair of the Seventies
The early settlers in Queensland had the advantage of observing the aborigine at close range, and opportunities of studying his ways that are not available to the present-day inhabitants unless they find their way into the recesses of Cape York Peninsula.

‍
Tribal fights frequently took place in those days on the outskirts of the towns, and usually had a small white audience; for there was little risk to the onlooker of getting a stray bullet, as would be extremely likely to happen in a modern battle even miles away from the centre of operations.

In The Queenslander of July 31, 1875—sixty years ago—a correspondent at Townsville gave a first-hand account of one of these native encounters. The aborigines, now familiarly spoken of in North and North-western Queensland as "abos," were "boros" in the early days, hence the caption to this story.

‍
Here is the correspondent's account:

The blacks appear to have been holding a week's carnival as well as their more civilised brethren. For some days strange blacks have been arriving in the town, and an old punt has done duty as a ferry-boat to convey the strangers across Ross Creek to a place opposite to the town, where the blacks have a large camp not 50 yards from the main street. On Thursday morning the ferry-boat appeared busier than usual, and some 300 warriors, in full undress, armed with spear, nullah-nullah, boomerang, and helimon, together with the great wooden sword, arrived on what was to be a sanguinary battlefield.

‍
"BLOOD SOON FLOWED"
That the black troops were "plenty coolah" was evident from their proceedings. After a considerable amount of gesticulation and antic, assisted by vehement yells, boomerangs began to fly, and spears and nullah-nullahs hurtled through the air. Blood soon flowed, and the excitement grew wilder. A man rushes up to an enemy, and from behind deals with a savage blow on the back sinews of the legs with one of the formidable wooden swords, and then runs back to his friends. The wounded man drops, as a matter of course, and is removed by his friends, who presently take dire revenge, for a spear rushes into the opposing ranks, pierces the chest of a warrior, and makes its appearance between the shoulders.

‍
His fall is avenged by a general assault of all hands on to one poor wretch, who retires with a skull on which there are several more sutures than was originally intended by nature. Reprisals were rapidly taking place. Whizz! goes a boomerang. In its rapid circular flight it scarcely pauses to take off a nose here, and gash a cheek there, before it reaches its goal, and splits in two the hand of a spear-wielder.

‍
The combat lasts a long time. The dead and wounded are recovered, and then commences the coronach of the gins. A wailing corroboree fills the air, and we retire from the scene to wonder at the depravity of the blacks. We call them fools; our own warriors we call—heroes. What's in a name?”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

“Another type of song arose from friction between tribes over intertribal exchange of women in the southeast part of South Australia.

Members of the Potaruwutj tribe of the Tatiara country, who were the Wepulprap or "Southern" people (to Milerum) were aggrieved over supposed ill treatment and killings by bone-pointing of women exchanged in marriage.

The real trouble was the supposed dishonoring of the one-for-one exchange by the Tanganekald. They were being accused in the song of allowing marriages between "wrong" clans instead of sending women to the “right” ones.

Their song was a [pelekawi], one of accusation and challenge.

We call the Tenggi people women chasers / They are mating throughout the tribe / We call the Tenggi people women chasers / They are all chasing and mating.

The term [Teggi] is the southerners term for the Tanganekald, the people of the Coorong lagoon.

The insinuation was that formerly exchange of women was proper; now there was refusal.

Milerum said, “This is a very dirty song—there is a lot of meaning in it; one word and the actions might make great trouble.”

The song had been composed by Dongaganinj of the Potaruwutj tribe. The Meintangki (people of the Meintangk tribe), having heard the song, backed up the Tanganekald and made a hit of their own by singing a slanderous reply along with a challenge to fight it out at a place called Nunukapul, a recognized place of combat on the Telauri Flat near Marcollat (native name [Matkalat]).

Several men were killed.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

Summary: A sorcery inspired revenge attack. [More research on this incident is underway- Ed.]

Detail:

“Pinkie Mack provided an example, although the date of the event was uncertain (probably prior to 1882). On the Brinkley Reserve before the houses were built, there were several camps opposite the swamp near McHughes Landing. Here some people were living and attending to the smoke-drying of three corpses placed on their platforms.

Members of the Walerumaldi with their headman Polmandendjeri from Polmanda (Pomanda) were also there; they were anticipating that fighting would break out.

One day in spring the men were out spear-fishing in their canoes along the Lake entrance of the Murray, while women were gathering mussels and swamp bulbs. They looked towards the shore and saw the old men struggling with the corpses which were trying to jump from their platforms and loosen their arms from the upright poles. From this sign, the people knew that a hostile group was on its way to fight.

They returned quickly to their camps, attended to the corpses and waited expectantly. In the distance they could see a Walkandi-woni party moving through the scrub, searching for Polmandendjeri. The reason they were looking for this man was not made explicit. Pinkie Mack believed that accusations of sorcery had been made against him.

Polmandendjeri sat some distance away, apart from his own men. The Walkandi-woni came to one of the camps and looked around but did not see him. In the meantime, the women set to work and prepared a feast for the strangers; they cut up the fish and roasted various water and land plants. While they were eating, several of the up-river people sneaked away and went in search of the Polmanda leader and found him sitting in one of the camps.

They took hold of his spears. One man named Pombat, speaking in Tangani, called out, ‘Let me do it!’ As Polmandendjeri was sitting there eating, Pombat thrust a spear through his collar bone so that it impaled him to the ground.

Pombat had a brother who was with the Walkandi-woni people; both were Tangani men and Pombat feared that his brother would be killed if Polmandendjeri were not. Immediately, the Walkandi-woni fled with the Polmanda men following them. They fought all the way to Wirange (Wirawar) opposite Wood’s Point, leaving the wounded and the dead lying there.

At Pitjurungarung (Pitjuram) opposite Monteith jetty, they saw Pombat’s brother. The Polmanda men called out to him and he came across the River. As he landed, they speared him dead. ‘That is how the war began’, said Pinkie Mack, ‘those Polmanda men didn’t want the Walkandi-woni to find their leader and they had not protected him!’”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

“We mentioned before that a large battle was reported to have taken place at Piwingang, near Tailem Bend.

The reason, we were told, was that while some local men were out hunting, a Tatiara group surprised a camp of people near the opening of the Murray into the Lake and abducted some young women.

Those who escaped swam across the River and warned the hunters. As there were only a few fighting men among them in comparison with the Tatiara party, they went further down the River with those women and children who had survived and assembled a large number of warriors belonging to several language/dialectal units.

They divided into small groups and set out in search of the Tatiara. Reaching Piwingang they ambushed them: only a few escaped.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

“Another widely-reported incident of the same period was the killing of a large camp of black men, women and children in the vicinity of Mt Eba, again on a charge of ‘sacrilege’ – an atrocity which sent shock waves of horror as far as the Aranda-speaking area, some five hundred miles distant to the north.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

“This horror [See Mount Iba Camp Massacre] was matched some years later by the wiping out of the Plenty River local group of Udebatara, from which there was only one small survivor – a small weeping boy who was taken away by one of the fierce ‘avengers’ and raised as his own son.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

“One of the superstitions of the blacks is that relating to the anointing of the body with the "gouri" (or fat) of their victims.

It was believed that this act imparted great strength and increased the prowess of those participating in the rite.

The inter tribal raids of this kind were not carried out openly as in ordinary warfare. They were night surprises of the most relentless and cruel character, and the scene which followed was about as diabolical and revolting as anything that could be imagined in the way of savagery.

Should the "Crargee" doctor, or wise man, indicate any other tribe which had given real or fancied cause for offence the young bucks of the aggrieved party would retire from the main camp to an appointed place of meeting.

‍
Here they would paint themselves with white and red pigments, and, armed with suitable weapons would steal forth on their devilish expedition, usually at the time when the intended victims were asleep in their mia mias.

One such raid took place on Thurgoona Station as late as 1834. Just before dawn about a dozen young bucks — of the nomad class — crept stealthily through the long reeds on the river flat, and the first intimation the peaceful Woradgery tribe had of the attack was conveyed by a shower of spears and boomerangs into the gunyahs.

The huts were razed to the ground the inmates speared indiscriminately, and, amidst screams of agony and yells one of the boys was snatched from his mothers arms and carried off as quickly as the raiders had come.

Later on the whole of the available warriors of the Woradgery tribe collected and went in pursuit of the invaders accompanied by some of the station hands. Some distance away they came upon the scene of the terrible "buckeen" rite.

They found the traces of the murder of the abducted black boy, the annointing of the murderers with his "gouri" or kidney fat, and cannabilistic feast which followed.

The warrigals had then made their escape to the mountains. On the morning after a "buckeen" the victimised camp presents a tragic and desolate spectacle with the wrecked gunyahs, blood stained ground and surroundings and dead and dying gins and picaninnies.”

credit: Bruno Boulestin

“That afternoon the fight commenced. Clans 13 and l4 fought Clans 8, 11, and 16. The sons of members of Clan 13 aided Clan 13.

The sons of memobrs of Clan 8 aided Clan 8. (This is the expression of the partially corporate nature of the iruma groups.) Cabbagy received a slight head wound. Manuel was mortally wounded and died that evening.”

“Two full-blooded aborigines were killed in a tribal fight at Yuendumu native settlement, 180 miles north-west of Alice Springs, on Friday night.

‍
A Native Affairs official stationed at Yueudumu brought the bodies of the two men, Jacky and Kenny, to Alice Springs during the week-end.

Four other natives were wounded in the fight, one of them seriously. Constable Johnstone went from Alice Springs to Yuendumu today and arrested one native.

‍
With Native Affairs officer Bray and a blacktracker he then went in pursuit of an aboriginal who has gone bush. Reports reaching Alice Springs from the settlement say that Mr Long, an officer at Yuendumu, showed great courage in stopping the fight, which arose from an ancient feud between two factions of the Warlbri tribe.

‍
Late on Friday about 150 natives lined up in opposing groups and begun to fight with spears and throwing sticks.

‍
Mr Long rushed between the groups and persuaded them to stop, but not before Jacky and Kenny had been killed.”

Glen Innes Examiner, 12-03-1951, p. 1

‍

“According to a message reeceived in Adelaide yesterday, the air ambulance of the flying doctor service had left Alice Springs for Yuendumu Mission Station to attend about 12 natives injured in a tribal battle.

Three of the aborigines were reported to be seriously wounded.”

Summary : A ritualised parrying battle, with no deaths and no major wounding, that was eye-witnessed on Groote Eylandt.

‍

Detail :

“Whilst on Groote Eylandt I witnessed real battles with spears. One of them looked very, serious, too, for the natives meant business. But, fortunately, on account of their efficiency in parrying spear throws, no blood was shed.

However, the result was quite satisfactory, as each man had thrown a spear at an opponent, and, regard less of the issue, that was all they required. Both sides then quietly adjourned to the shade of a tree, sat down together, and their friendship was renewed. It is a strong custom with them, that they never sit together until the battle is over.

‍
Yes, it was all about a woman. Jeboma, of the Umbokubu tribe, had designs upon one of Monkey’s wives, and as Monkey, who belonged to the Bartalumba tribe, objected strongly to his attentions, a fight took place between the two men - the result, Jeboma speared Monkey, and he died.

‍
Thus Jeboma Increased his harem to five, but the tribe to which Monkey belonged threatened revenge, and the relations between the two tribes became very strained. Nothing really happened for twelve months. Then, one quiet morning, Mundowara, an old man belonging to the tribe of Jeboma, walked off into the bush to fetch sugar-bag (wild honey). He didn’t return.

But a few days later a big fire was seen about 30 miles away - it was Mundowara’s fire. He was burning the scrub and grass over the land where Monkey had been slain. This is the custom, and a sign that the way is now clear, and further, that Monkey’s tribe were invited to battle. Custom also ruled that neither tribe should cross that land until the devils had been burned away.

‍
The excitement in the camps grew; days were spent rehearsing and preparing spears; everything else was neglected. Several days passed before Mundowara returned, looking particularly pleased. He squatted down with his people and unfolded the news.

The enemy were advancing slowly, but, as it was necessary for them to catch their tucker in the vicinity of burned-out country, they might easily be a week.

‍
At last the day arrived - Monkey’s tribe were in sight. By midday the enemy reached a very old paper-bark tree, about a mile from Jeboma’s camp, and there they lay down for a final rest and to resharpen their spears. Meanwhile the natives on Jeboma’s side were becoming most excited, and the young boys were all smiles, for a real light was something well worth seeing.

‍
Two hours later the enemy rose, shook the sand off their bodies, gathered their bundles of spears and womeras, and slowly began to approach the opposing camp, headed by a very old, shrivelled-up man with a long tangled beard. Just then, one of Jeboma’s men rushed out, and stuck into the centre of a flat piece of ground a stick with a native apron flying from the top like a flag. This was to denote the field of battle, and was a sign to the enemy that all was ready.

‍
Within a few minutes the enemy had taken up their position about 10 yards on one side of the flag and Jeboma and his men were on the other. Immediately, the little old man from the enemy’s side passed the flag and went over to Jeboma’s front. There, he walked up and down in front of them, shaking his feet, pointing at them with quivering fingers, and yelling out all manner of threats. He told them in forceful language what Jeboma had done, and what was the custom of his tribe. He screeched, with a frothy mouth, most of the laws that his forefathers had created, and he emphasised how good they were, and how they should be reverenced. Also, he reminded them of the battles of the past - when he was a young man.

This continued for nearly 20 minutes, and then, suddenly, he rushed back to his own side, and the battle was on.
One man from the enemy’s side - a near relative of Monkey’s - came forward, shaking a handful of quivering spears, and darted, up the line and then down, making the most grotesque faces and diabolical noises. Like lightning he turned, faced his line of enemy, and hurled a big shovel-headed spear at one particular man.

By a quick, clever parry, the spear was sent flying up into the air, and then the next man camp upon the scene.

This man seemed to be possessed with the fury or a devil, for he ran up and down the same line like a maniac, one moment grovelling in the sand and then jumping over imaginary obstacles. Then, with a terrifying shriek, he turned, and, like his predecessor, plunged in his longest spear. Close as it was, he missed; for his enemy, quick as a cat, jumped to one side.

This procedure continued until each man had hurled his best spear at some member of Jeboma’s camp.

‍
It was a most exciting show, and, although little blood was shed, the action of Jeboma killing Monkey and stealing his wife was considered to be fully avenged, and both tribes were now on friendly terms.

This practice is a confirmed custom, and no amount of reasoning will alter their method of revenge.

And after all, perhaps it is fairer than some of our methods. They do all come out into tho open - there is no shooting up narrow lanes, and no smashing of heads with beer bottles.”

‍

“An aboriginal battle on the Daly River, Northern Territory, was described in the Darwin Supreme Court this morning, when a native named Myjinite was charged before Judge Wells with having murdered an aborigine named Darmart, otherwise known as Charlie, on or about June 29.

Alligator, a member of one of the tribes, said that a big mob of blacks, belonging to several tribes were fighting near the Daly River when Charlie was killed by a spear.

His body was taken to a billabong, and later placed in a tree. (...) Barney, who belonged to the Angulmeri tribe, said that the battle was over a lubra which a tribesman wanted to take.

Three tribes came together to help the blackfellow, one of which Charlie was a member. Barney did not see Charlie hit with a spear, but heard some lubras crying out. He heard Myjinite say later that he had killed the wrong one.

Benjamin, an old aborigine, said that as the spears were thrown, they were picked up again by the opposing tribes, who were defending the lubra, and were hurled back again.

Many blackfellows suffered wounds from these.”

‍

“Several days of dancing preceded the fight.

Two weeks after the exchange of messages, the Melville Island fighters arrived at the Mission in thirty-five large canoes.

Each side held a dance, after which the fighters moved into position for combat. They stood several yards apart in two parallel lines while the opposing leaders conferred in the area between the columns.

Each Melville Island fighter threw spears and clubs at the Bathurst Island fighter directly opposite.

Few injuries resulted. (Note that in this round of the fight the Bathurst Islanders did not throw weapons but merely defended themselves. They accepted a mild form or punishment.)

The Melville Island women collected the scattered weapons and returned them to their owners. An open fight broke out and continued until all were injured or too exhausted to fight. One Melville Islander was killed. ”

‍

Summary : A long pitched battle at Daly River with no fatalities but a 'many painful flesh-wounds'.

‍Details :

“One wintry afternoon in 1932 on the Daly River in North Australia I saw that some of the men in an Aboriginal camp near my own had painted themselves garishly with earth-pigment. I knew this to be a sign of impending trouble but no one would give me any clear idea of what was to come.

At about three o’clock the men began to go unobtrusively downriver, and some women and older children drifted off in the same direction. Each man carried a womerahor spear-thrower and a handful of mixed spears but this fact, in itself, meant little for in those days every male Aboriginal went armed on the shortest journey.

Curiosity overcame any fear that I might be unwelcome if I followed so I made haste after them as soon as 1 could. By the time I made my camp and stores as secure as possible the party was lost to sight in the timber. I had to cast about a good deal to find the right direction, but eventually the sound of a distant uproar led me out of the savanna and on to the edge of a clearing where I could see more than one hundred men, my friends among them, locked in noisy battle.

‍
I stood awhile at the edge of the clearing to take the measure of what was happening, for I had not before seen a large-scale fight. The human scene had a savage, vital splendour. The pigments daubed on the men’s bodies gleamed harshly in the late afternoon light. The air was filled with flying spears, each making a brief flicker of light as it sped. Some of the overshot missiles slithered with a dry rattle into the timber nearby. One pair of eyes could scarcely take in all that was happening at once.

A distracting and continuous din came as much from spectators, of whom there were again over one hundred, as from combatants.
‍

The men were ranged in two groups, one whitened, one yellowed, each in a very rough formation of line, about sixty paces apart. Scarcely for a moment did the lines hold form. Some men, alone or supported, were running forward to throw their spears, others back to retrieve spent weapons or snatch new ones from supporters, others from side to side in challenge to a succession of enemies. Sometimes a solitary man on each side would stand with the others in echelon on both flanks.

Old men, capering with excitement on the sidelines, would suddenly run to the battle line to throw spears, and then go back to their former posts. Women, with fistfuls of spears, would come without apparent fear into the danger area to offer the weapons to their menfolk, at the same time shouting in shrill execration of the enemy. On both sides great shows of anger, challenge, and derision were being made. Some men would range up towards the enemy and contort their faces hideously; some, the older, would chew their beards and spit them out; some would bite on the small dilly-bags worn as neck-ornaments or stuff their loin-cloths into their mouths; here and there one would turn and, with gesticulations of insult, poke his anus towards the other line.

Only the light duelling spears were in use but I saw one powerful Aboriginal, on what seemed the weaker side, run abruptly from the middle of the fight to wrestle fiercely with supporters to gain possession of their heavy, iron-bladed spears. They would not yield them, and sought to pacify him. He returned to continue fighting with the light spears.

‍
The patterns and canons of the fighting eventually showed themselves through the aggregate moil. The struggle could be seen to resolve itself into discontinuous phases of duels between pairs of men with supporters.

I could identify various pairs hurling spears at each other and, at the same time, see eddies of movement as others came to support them, so that something like a battle of masses would thus develop. This led to much cross-movement, and a veering of the heat of battle from place to place in the line as principals here became supporters there when an associate or kinsman came under heavy attack. Later, the principals would resume a phase of their own duels.

‍
In trying to sort out the encounters of pairs, my eyes were drawn and held by an Aboriginal of striking physique and superb carriage who always seemed pinned by an unremitting attack. He seemed, as far as any individual could, to dominate the battlefield. He was so tall that he stood half a head above the tallest there. His muscular power was apparent in his bulk but it was the grace and intensity of his fighting which captured my attention.

His favourite posture was to fling arms and legs as wide as possible as though to make himself the maximum target. Having drawn and evaded a spear he would often counter with a dexterity and speed remarkable in so large a man. His fluent movements in avoiding injury—an inclination of the head, a sway of the body, the lifting of an arm or leg, a half turn—always seemed minimal.

I saw his spears strike home several times. As they did, the roars of exultation from his own side, and of rage from the other, would bring a rally to both. He himself stayed unwounded through the afternoon after a peerless display of skill and courage.

‍
The battle died, as if by agreement, towards sundown and some of the antagonists began to fraternise, others to drift away. No one had been mortally hurt though many had painful flesh-wounds. There was some talk of continuing the fight another day. ”

‍

“The lugger Chantress returned today from Melville Island.

The owners report that a big tribal fight between natives from two of the neighbouring islands had taken place, fully 1.000 aborigines having taken part.

Several severe spear wounds had been received, but there had been no deaths reported. The natives had fought with eight-foot fighting spears in the traditional style, having previously notified their foes of their intention to fight.

One native employed on the Chantress had announced his intention of fighting, saying that he would return to the boat if he was living when the fight concluded.”

‍

“Years later, Dukey of Clan 12 wa identified as Wiyapunga's murderer. (...) There was a fight at Pinyanapi between Wiyapunga's country 4 and Dukey's country 5. Dukey was supported by his countrymen of Clans 5.

Their opponents were the Country 4 men of Clans 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, 14 and a few members of Clan 13.

of Clan 1 and Country 4 also fought against Country 5, but the rest of his clansmen would not fight Country 5; they were Dukey's brothers-in-law through Dukey's deceased wife.

Father Gsell heard of the only severe injury in the fight. He told the natives that they should stop fighting.”

“The Wyndham police have forwarder to the Commissioner (Mr. R. Connell) details of a gory battle between two tribes of natives in low-lying country cast of the Forrest River Mission.

The natives had met on Goonda Doo Plain to peacefully discuss their differences, but, as has happened previously at such meetings, the 'talk-talk' developed into a fight.

On this occasion, however, the fight was more serious than ever before, and one native was killed and others injured, two of them seriously.

‍
Constable J. F. Bond, in his report of the result of his inquiries, states that although 20 or more natives who were concerned in the fight were questioned, it was impossible to decide with any degree of certainty which native was killed.

Definitely, though, it was either Mulumerrie or MoorungduL Missionaries at Forrest River believe that Mulumerrie was the unfortunate native, but aboriginals say that Moorungdul was killed, and that his body, was taken into the bush by his fellow tribesmen.

‍
The natives told the police that it was impossible to say who threw the spear which killed Mulumerrie of MoorungduL as there were hundreds ot spears travelling through the air.

One of the natives who was seriously injured has since recovered, but the other, Doonmarrie, who was speared in the thigh and the foot, was taken to the bush by his tribe and nothing is known of him since.

Inquiries by the police indicate that it was a pre-arranged plan, that the tribes should meet at Goonda Boo Plain for, some days preceding the meeting, natives were seen to be heading in that direction, and when questioned they said they were going for a 'talk-talk'.

It is an annual custom for the native to meet thus, and the 'talk-talk' usually develops in to a brawl of a harmless nature. This year there was a disturbing element in the form of a comely aboriginal girl, who was known as Margaret.

Margaret’s Romance
Margaret was desired by many strapping bucks, but favoured only two Erie and Jibberoo.

These two were at the 'talk-talk', and so was Margaret and they decided to fight for her there and then.

Spears were produced, and Erie quickly demonstrated that he was the master in this primitive method of warfare. He soundly beat his rival, and gloried in his knight-like conquest, but Jibberoo, though beaten in fair fight refused to allow the prize to be handed over, and received the support of his tribesmen.

‍
The natives were drawn up for the 'talk-talk' in two lines facing each other, one numbering about 70 and the other about 60.

At the time Mr. William Thomas Taylor, a missionary from the Forrest River Mission, was present with some mission boys and, scenting trouble, he exercising the authority the natives usually allow the white man, took all the spears from the natives, returning them only after Margaret had been handed over to Erie.

To subdue the warring elements, too, he fired a couple of shots from his rifle into the air.

The fight begins
Peace reigned for a time, but so excited had the natives become that a fight was inevitable.

A spear whizzed through the air, and was immediately followed by others until the opposing sections were engaged in fierce battle. The fact that they were painted in accordance with the tribal customs when preparing for fight indicated that the natives had anticipated something of the sort.

Their shining, hideously painted bodies dashing here and there, with spears upraised, the natives yelling and screaming as in the frenzy of a corroboree, bore down, on each other with murderous intent, and the missionary and his boy had to withdraw because of the danger from flying spears.

War of Other Days
By this time it had developed into a war of other days, when huge bands of aboriginals, untamed and unspoiled by civilisation, fought to kill or be killed.

Rapidly the two lines diminished in size as spears found their marks and warriors dropped in their places.

The missionary and the boys were near out of sights and the details of the remainder of the fight must be left to the imagination. It is thought, however, that the natives fought until fatigue took its toll and they slunk away into the bush, leaving only the wounded, one of whom subsequently died, on the bloodstained plain.

‍
Very few of the natives have since been seen, having taken to the bush through fear of being speared by members of the opposite faction, and whether Erie or Jibberoo got Margaret will have to be ascertained later.”

‍

“The gaingar (ghost spear, pitched battle) is so deadly and results in so many casualties that it is rarely used and only under the most extreme provocation.

There are only two recorded cases in the last twenty years, one betweeen the peoples of the Caledon Bay area and those of the Buckingham Bay.

‍The other between the peoples west of the Goyder River and along the seacoast and those east of the Goyder and in the interior (...)

The writer recorded fifteen deaths in the Caledon Bay fight [see separate entry in Map], and fourteen killed and one severely wounded in the Goyder River combat.”

‍

“The gaingar (ghost spear, pitched battle) is so deadly and results in so many casualties that it is rarely used and only under the most extreme provocation.

There are only two recorded cases in the last twenty years, one betweeen the peoples of the Caledon Bay area and those of the Buckingham Bay; the other between the peoples west of the Goyder river and along the seacoast and those east of the Goyder and in the interior (...) The writer recorded fifteen deaths in the Caledon Bay fight, and fourteen killed and one severely wounded in the Goyder River combat [see separate entry in Map].”

‍

Summary : Anthropologist Herbert Basedow eye-witnesses a battle between two opposing groups of about 20 men each. One is killed by a spear and another has his brains knocked out with an iron-bar with such gruesome results that the battle stops and both sides greive.

‍

Detail:
“The men decamped shortly before noon, but reappeared just as we were rowing back to our ship in the dinghy. I did not take much notice of them, and, as soon as we climbed aboard, gave orders to prepare for our departure.

I was myself busily studying my charts which I had spread out over the hatch, when quite unexpectedly a blood curdling yell rang out from the shore. My first impression was that we were about to be attacked, though the distance we were from shore did not make that probable.

The warriors, for such I now realised they were, had fore-gathered in a group immediately below the tamarind. They were gesticulating wildly, with their spears held in their throwers all ready for action, and knocking their knees together with a quick, vibrating action of their legs. All of them were looking in the direction of the mangroves.

‍
My cry, boss, gasped one of our boys named Dick. He’s going to fight. You see that mob sitting close up that sandhill? Fight? I repeated.

‍
The whole thing was as clear as a pikestaff. Did it not explain everything that had seemed suspicious about the natives when they presented themselves to us? Were not the men in their war paint? And were they not carrying decorated spears? Was not the smoke signal we had connected with a hunting expedition a challenge to the enemy?

The very beach we had left less than a half hour ago had been chosen for the ominous rendezvous! It was all so very strange and sudden, but nevertheless a fact; and at this stage it did not require the perspicacity of an Aboriginal to fathom it.

‍
I could not see the enemy myself, but had heard them announce their presence by responding with a devilish howl. We’ll wait awhile, Johann, I ordered. Pull in the mainsail, boys.

‍
The local warriors were now beginning to show signs of excitement. Now and then one of them would run forward a chain or so and challenge the enemy, as if requesting them to send a man to meet him. His antics would bring forth bellowing shrieks of admiration from his comrades, and as soon as he rejoined them another man would plunge into the open and try to create a greater impression than the former.

‍
Look! Look! There they come! shrieked Dick, exuberant with emotion. From his gestures I saw that he was obsessed with the spirit of war and was dying to jump overboard to swim ashore and be in the fray himself.

‍
The enemy was indeed now plainly visible on the foreshore, running one behind the other, with their bodies bent and carrying their spears horizontally at their sides. They had come right into the open and were boldly stepping towards the Tarula men, who remained steadfast and treated the advance with utmost contempt.

‍
The attackers were yelling savagely and had quickened their pace to a fair sprint, but they still ran with their bodies stooped, while they seemed to be dodging from one small tussock to another as they advanced, as if they were seeking cover. To me this precaution seemed altogether superfluous, if not ridiculous, because the tussocks were at the most little more than knee high, and thus left the vulnerable parts of their trunks completely exposed.

‍
It was not long before they found themselves facing the Tarula group, and only about four or five chains distant from them. They made no attempt to encircle their victims, but halted in a body opposite them.

‍
Whilst the Tarula remained as rigid as statues, it was the newcomers’ turn to display some clever and valorous acts of incitement of much the same character as we had earlier observed on the other side.

‍
This lasted a good twenty minutes without leading to any untoward result, and I was just persuading myself that the men on both sides had merely been playing to the gallery and had never intended to fight at all when one of the strangers, more daring than the rest, bolted to within about fifty paces of the Tarula men and, with an air of Take that! dispatched his missile into their midst.

‍
This was the spark that brought about an explosion. Although no one was hit by the spear, the Tarula replied with the quickness of lightning. Instantly the air became alive with flying spears that had been aimed at the impudent stranger. But it was marvellous how cleverly he dodged them all. In half a moment he was joined by his comrades; and then the fight began!

‍
Old Dick was hysterical, and his swarthy skin turned almost white with excitement, while his eyes seemed the size of saucers as he followed the upheaval on the shore. His sympathies were all for the Tarula.

‍
Please, boss! he pleaded, you give me mug getty [rifle]. Let me frighten that cheeky mob been come up this country. His voice was trembling with emotion. This country belonga Tarula. He’s little bit all the same my people. Me want to help him. That other mob, he’s too cheeky; might he want to steal’ em Tarula women. I know he no want to let him go. Please, boss!

‍
The old chap was most sincere and fervent, but it was obviously impossible for me to accede to his request.

‍
In the meantime the disturbance on the beach had assumed a businesslike aspect. The belligerents were howling like wild animals. Volleys of spears I had flown from side to side, but apparently without any serious mishap to anybody. The parties were very evenly matched, with about twenty warriors on either side.

‍They now stood only about a chain apart, and all proved wonderfully adept in dodging or warding off the ugly missiles which ordinarily would rarely have missed their mark.

Then came a diabolic yell. It recorded the first casualty. One of the Alligator men had been transfixed by a spear which entered his body somewhere in the region of the groin. It must have been a nasty hit, for the fellow doubled up and fell to the ground writhing with pain.

‍
Two or three of his comrades rushed to his side with the intentions, obviously, of carrying him to a place of safety. It was a most courageous and risky undertaking, for numbers of spears, which they warded off, were hurled at them during the attempt. Before they could lift the wounded man another missile entered his chest, which must have killed him almost instantly. Boisterous yelling heralded this additional success from the Tarula side.

‍
Yet another disaster awaited the enemy. Just as one of the carriers stooped to lift his fallen comrade a heavy missile entered his thigh with such force that its barbed blade came through on the opposite side. The nerve of the man was remarkable, for he called on one of his mates to break the shaft and when this had been done he limped away with those who were carrying the fallen hero beyond reach of the spears.

‍
Dick by this time was beyond himself with pleasure and pride. For my part, seeing the serious turn of events, I was wondering whether I could interfere. I had had one or two unpleasant experiences while endeavouring to quell disturbances of this kind before and unless I was prepared to shoot down several of the men to attain my end I realised the danger of going ashore.

Natives under conditions such as these go mad with excitement and rage, and are not responsible for their actions. Besides, even had I succeeded in clearing the beach and temporarily restoring order, the parties would only have met again a few miles on and continued their battle with renewed vigour and vengeance.

‍
I decided not to go ashore but to see what effect a salvo would have. Aiming at the tamarind tree, well over their heads, I discharged all the cartridges from my rifle chamber in quick succession. The result was anything but satisfactory. Far from being deterred, the warriors took not the slightest notice of the reports. If anything, I imagined they received the effort as a salute of appreciation from me, for the Tarula almost immediately made a terrific rush at the Alligator men, and a regular melee ensued!

‍
The Tarula by this time had a numerical advantage over the aggressors. Most of the spears had been broken during the several onslaughts, and the men were making use of waddies and heavy rods which Dick informed me were iron bars that some of the men had taken from a shipwreck on the western side of the Gulf.

‍
They were exciting moments. The warriors chased each other around and fought like panthers. Blows were directed at opponents’ heads or arms, and parried time and again. The awful clouts could be distinctly heard above the general din aboard the Hilda; but none of the men ran the risk of parting with his club by using it in any other way than for striking.

‍
Then an Alligator warrior had his chance. He was a huge fellow, well over six feet high, and as nimble as a cat. I had been watching him for some time and observed how cleverly he had avoided being hit. He managed, however, to come face to face with a Tarula, and made a terrific swipe at his head with an iron bar. The Tarula parried skilfully, but the weight of the iron, combined with the severity of the blow, resulted in the smashing of his wooden’ waddy to splinters. The iron bar struck the unfortunate fellow’s head with frightful force and brained him.

‍
It was a horrible sight, and one I never want to see again. But, like the ill wind, it did good in that it ended the battle.

‍
The Tarula instantly changed their war cry to a heart trending wail. And behold! the Alligator men did likewise. Nobody attempted to continue with the fray a moment longer; and so hostilities came to an abrupt termination most unexpectedly. It was a perfect armistice.

Why this should have followed the death of that particular man was beyond me to ascertain and Dick could not help me either. The fellow had not been uncommonly conspicuous in the battle, and I had not regarded him as a chief.

I wondered whether the gruesomeness of his murder had, perhaps, brought the combatants to their senses, on both sides, and whether, after all, the casus belli [an act or situation that provokes or justifies a war] had been so trivial that the serious and revolting consequences had suddenly filled them with repugnance and horror.

‍
Not another spear was thrown nor another blow attempted. The scene was spontaneously changed to one of utter despair. Men who had ferociously assailed each other a few minutes before stood around the unfortunate victim in a body and looked the picture of sorrow and sympathy.

‍
Five or six Tarula warriors lifted their fallen comrade and carried him under the shade of the tamarind tree, where, I noticed with my glasses, they covered him with green branches. The Alligator men followed and took part in the rendering of a pathetic and plaintive dirge. I was bewildered. The proceedings puzzled me beyond measure. They seemed so paradoxical.

‍
Having missed the tide, I decided to row ashore and see if I could be of service, either official or medical.

Knowing that the man under the tamarind was beyond human aid, I thought it best not to worry the mourners, but ordered Dick to follow the tracks of the injured Alligator men.

‍
We had not to go very far before we reached them. It was a pitiful picture that met our eyes. There were six men in all. The principal victim was lying on his back, with his head resting on the lap of another who was bending over him and feelingly muttering words of sympathy and encouragement.

A single glance sufficed to convince me that the man was quite dead, but, owing to his glazen eyes being open and to his sardonic grin, his mates were evidently not aware of the fact.

The lethal spear heads had been removed and the wounds plastered with ruddle. The men had done everything in their power to keep the unfortunate comrade at ease.

‍

“The Lardil people were very angry when they heard this man's story, and decided to pay back the Yanyula mob.

Next time they heard that the Yanyula were out on a raid, the Larumbanda and some West Lardil, the Balumbanda, joined with the Yanggarl and killed many of the Yanyula in a big fight on Forsyth Island.

This was not before the white man came.”

‍

“When I was very young, an old man of my mob told me how he and some other Lardil were camped on Forsyth [Island] while on a trading trip.

One night the Yanyula came sneaking along paddling their walpas, and made a surprise attack on them.

Two of his mates went down with spears in them and were killed.

‍He ran away and hid among rocks until daylight and then escaped by walpa across to Denham Island.

The Yanyula captured all their women and took them away to the mainland.”

‍

“The Warumeri…now have about forty people, since the last generation suffered a severe loss through a disastrous fight with the Wangurri over the right to certain women.

Certain members of the Warumeri clan in the last generation married women who should have become the wives of Wangurri clansmen, since their fathers stood in the relationship of mother's brother to ego.

The Wangurri organized a raid, killed many of the Warumeri men and took the women for themselves.”

‍

“One day he received word that a raiding party of Wombiahs had come upon two of his brothers out hunting and had killed one of them.

I never saw a human being, white or black, so cut up with grief or so furiously determined on revenge.

I had an awful job to stop him going off to avenge his brother 's death — but, naturally, no matter how much I sympathised with him, I could not let him loose with that Snider and a pocketful of cartridges. There would have been some weeping and I wailing in the Wombiah tribe if he had got away.

‍
Later we both had the satisfaction of seeing a party of Wombiahs get their deserts. We cut the track of a party which Cubagee declared were those of a mob of Wombiahs returning from a raid, and while I was exerting my influence to stop him from riding after them and avenging his brother's death, we heard a, lot of 'yackoing' behind us, and saw a mob of Wargiahs making a detour to avoid us.

It was obvious that they were in pursuit of the Wombiahs. I then decided to follow and see what would happen, and late in the afternoon came up with them just as the Wombiahs turned to fight it out.

For perhaps half an hour we sat on our camels watching the opposing parties hurling insults at each other over a level strip of ground. Then both sides flung volleys of spears, boomerangs and throwing-sticks, following up by charging each other and engaging in a series of hand-to-hand scraps with clubs and shields.

They yelled and howled, clubs thudding on the heads and shields. Then the Wombiahs broke and fled in groups, I expected to see the ground littered with corpses, but although some were badly knocked about, not one fatality had resulted, as far as I could see, though it is quite likely that some have to be left to die later on as the badly-thrashed Wombiahs continued their flight for home.”

‍

“There is an unpublished account in the records of the Aurukun Mission of a local massacre on the Upper Love River in the early twentieth century.”

“The Port Darwin correspondent of the Register, send the following sensational account of a fierce tribal battle which took place between two opposing mobs of blacks at Rolling Bay.

The encounter was witnessed by Mr. James McPherson, who arrived at Port Darwin a few days ago from a trepanging expedition along the coast.

There were about 60 Junction Bay natives employed, by him on one side, and some 30 or 40 marauding natives from the Liverpool River on the other.

The fight took place on a clear space near the seashore.

Mr McPherson pulled ashore to his smokehouse on the morning of January 24, and noticed that only a few of his working natives were about. He was told that they were expecting a fight with hostile natives. At about 4 pm that day, a peculiar blood-curdling yell rang out from some bushes about 200 yards away, and immediately following this scores of ghastly white painted figures darted out from thick bushes on both sides of the clearing at the rear of the smokehouse.

The air was so thick with flying spears, and the combatants approached within about 15 yards of each other.

The spears used were large heavy barbed ones. The natives of both sides showed amazing quickness in avoiding and warding off these barbed pointed death-dealers. In about a quarter of an hour nearly all the spears were broken.

One of the Junction Bay natives was then transfixed by a large spear, as he was in the act of stooping to pick up a spear thrown by an opponent. The transfixing of this man seemed to fill both sides with terrible fury. They immediately closed, and a furious hand-to-hand melee ensued.

The Junction Bay natives had the advantage in numbers and weapons, being armed with knives, tomahawks, and iron bars 4ft. long made from hatch battens taken from the wreck of the steamer Australian.

Their opponent had only ordinary bush waddies and womeras. The iron bars proved deadly weapons, inflicting ghastly wounds wherever they struck.

‍Within half an hour the survivors of the marauding party fled into the scrub leaving 11 of their number on the field. Those were immediately hacked and beaten to death with tomahawks and iron bars.

Those who fled were pursued, and Mr. McPherson thinks that few if any escaped. On going ashore on the following morning Mr. McPherson found that all the bodies had been cremated, only a few charred bones being left in the still mouldering fire.

Mr. McPherson states that a wonderful lot of odds and ends from the wreck of the steamer Australian are to be found among the natives hundreds of miles down the coast. In one camp he found a much-prized oval mirror, which probably once adorned one of the steamer’s saloon cabins.”

‍

“A native tribal tragedy occurred at Brock’s Creek last Wednesday.

It seems that a Brock’s Creek native saw and loved a maiden belonging to the Daly River tribe and, following the good old primitive custom, forcibly seized and brought her to Brock’s Creek.

The girl’s relatives and friends armed, and followed on the fugitive’s tracks, crept upon the abductor in his camp, speared him through the heart, and retreated with the recovered woman toward Daly River.

The friends of the murdered man pursued and overtook the enemy a few miles from Brock’s Creek and a pitched battle followed, in which several natives were wounded and one Daly River native was killed.

The Brock’s Creek natives, satisfied with having fulfilled the old Mosaic law, then returned home.

An eyewitness states that the natives on both sides displayed exceptional ferocity and fierceness, and the battleground was littered with broken spears.”

The Lancefield blacks paid an unfriendly visit at daylight on Tuesday, to the Mt. Leonora camp.

There were about 18 in the party, and they hurled spears and rushed the camp.

One man named Gidgie was killed, two gins are not expected to live, and another black was badly speared and hit with a nulla.

Gidgie at one time lived out Lancefield way and the visiting warriors were after him.

Lancefield is 80 miles from Mt. Leonora.

The visiting blacks, after their surprise call, decamped through the bush. The local blacks made a good fight, though taken unawares.

‍

“For as long as the Walbiri can remember they have been in intermittent conflict with the Waringari.

The tribes frequently raided each other to avenge old killings and to abduct women, and neither placed any reliance on the word of the other.

Matters apparently came to a head some time before the Tanami gold-rush of 1909.

Until then, the Waringari had claimed the ownership of the few native wells at Tanami and the country surrounding them, but in a pitched battle for the possession of the water the Walbiri drove the Waringari from the area, which they incorporated into their own territory.

By desert standards the engagement was spectacular, the dead on either side numbering a score or more.

Such forcible conquest of land (or, rather, water) was, to judge from the published accounts of Aboriginal societies, most uncommon among Australian tribes, but it is possible that it occurred more often than we realize in the desert region where water is a precious commodity.”

“At daylight the neighbourhood was aroused by the screams and war chants of the women, the angry exclamations of the men, the din of arms, the clattering of spears and throwing-sticks, and the rattling of the sconce of some fair one, whose only crime, we were led to understand, had been a too close relationship with the weaker party.

This hurly-burly was kept up for about four hours and but few, either men or women, escaped without one or two spear wounds through the thigh or leg.

In the course of the day, the few who were able to walk about were seen limping about the streets of Perth, begging alms.

‍
We could not refrain from evincing some astonishment at the utter indifference these savages showed to the sufferings of their wounded companions.

A poor woman was speared in three places : the moment the deed was done, the man who shielded her, by constantly presenting himself between her, and the threatened blow of the assailant, conceiving that he had done his duty, walked coolly away, leaving the object of his protection writhing on the ground in the bitterest agony.

A smile seemed to be playing upon his countenance.”

‍

Summary : An eye-witness recollection (recorded in his late age from his memories as a boy) of a formal battle/contest of 500 Lismore warriors against 500 Tweed warriors. Once the one of the main combatants was wounded the contest stopped and the victor achieved his proze of the 'stolen' new bride.

‍
Detail : “Mr. Flick most graphically describes a big Bullen Bullen [tribal fight], which was held on the flat, now the Lismore racecourse.

At this time, said Mr. Flick, these flats were quite different to what they are now. To set from North Lismore, now Pine-street, one had to cross a creek running from the river. This creek was known as Slater’s Creek. It ran up to the present Lismore Showground.

At this time the creek was heavily timbered with dense scrub, which was very difficult to penetrate. In fact a person had to cut a track through the heavy vines. The creek divided North Lismore proper from the natural grassed flat, upon which the present High School now stands.

This piece of flat was selected and owned by Mr. Flick’s father. To get from the High School flat to the race course flat another creek - Currie’s Creek - had to be crossed. This creek was also very heavily timbered. The main river, too, was bordered on both sides by dense scrub. It can be readily seen that when the scrub referred to reached the scrub covered hill at the back these small grass flats were separated and separated and surrounded completely, and the view from one flat to another was obscured. At this time Mr. Flick’s father was living quite close to where the High School now stands.

The track used at that time by the few white people and the blacks passed by his father’s back door. It was here Mr. Flick, when quite a boy, saw his first real Bullen Bullen, or tribal fight. It was, said Mr. Flick, a sight one could never forget.

The 500 dark warriors approached from Fine-street, or North Lismore, in the direction of the racecourse, where it was decided the Bullen, Bullen should take place against 500 warriors from the Tweed. It was a beautiful and wonderful sight to see the natives passing in fours, all in a crouching position.

All the blacks were painted in different markings, and their bushy mop hair was decorated with the gaudy colored feathers of parrots. Each man carried two spears, two boomerangs, one nulla nulla, and a yellerman or shield. Beyond wearing a tabby tabby they were naked.

It was some time before all the warriors filed past. Then followed some hundreds of old men and old women and children, and hundreds of dogs of all sizes, breeds and descriptions brought up the tear.

After passing Mr. Flick’s home and some chains closer to the convincing ground, the warriors halted on a rising piece of ground. Here there was a true military square. Boy like, said Mr. Flick, he went in hot haste to see all he could.

Mr. Flick was on a lower plane than the warriors, when he heard the war whoop given by the whole band. They then made one bound in the air, as if they were one man. I can conscientiously say, said Mr. Flick, when that great body of human flesh came with a thump on Mother Earth the large gumtree branches quivered.

One wild concerted rush was then made for the battlefield. When Currie’s Creek was reached, with its wide border of scrub, they were not quite sure of the location of the enemy. But as they approached the opposite bank, and nearing the race course flat, they found the enemy in ambush near the edge of the scrub.

Without any warning the enemy threw their whole weight at the Lismore men, using nulla nulla and shields. Spears could not be used on account of the dense scrub.

After a terrific battle the Lismore men forced the enemy out on the flat. Then in double quick time a double line was formed on both sides. It was at this stage that the young gins picked up for the occasion came into position.

The order for battle was then given by the chiefs. It was, said Mr. Flick, a weird sight to see the air almost black with spears, and the alertness with which each warrior warded them off. While the fight was in progress, the young gins in the rear were watching closely their chance to hand the spears back to the warriors.

The fight went on for some hours, the men surging to and fro, until the chiefs called a draw. This ended the battle as far as the soldiers were concerned. Like all other such battles, it was fought as the result of an elopement by a young Tweed black with a Lismore gin. When the draw was called the conflict was finished.

The two rivals for the gin tben had to fight it out to see who was to gain the prize.

CLAIMANTS FOR LADY’S HAND
The chief then called forward the two claimants for the lady’s hand, and they were each handed a nulla nulla and yellerman. They were then ordered to fight.

This, said Mr. Flick, was one of the finest pieces of athletic work be had ever seen. With open wild rush these two young men flew at each other. The rattle and thumps of the nulla nullas and shields made a weird sound.

The skilful handling of the yellerman prevented the body from being hurt. The bounds, feints, rushes and pressure put forward by each man would cause the most complacent mind to become excited. With a wild rush and heavy exterior blow by the Lismore man the yellerman held by his opponent was splintered.

A conference of the chiefs was then held, and it was decided that the combat should be finished with knife and shield. The knives used were made by the blacks out of hoop iron broken from an old cask. The hoop iron was broken off to the length of an ordinary butcher’s knife, and ground to the shape required. Some stinging tree bark fibre was round the end to form the handle, and finished with beeswax, which made a very firm handle. These knives would do just the same work as an ordinary knife, but had to be sharpened more often.

When the two were ready they would approach each other with more cunning and care. Here again the lunges, feints, etc., were most scientifically carried out. At times the men, with flash-like hounds, would almost jump right over each other. This combat lasted for some considerable time, and finally the Tweed man showed more skill than is opponent, who received at the hands of the Tweed man a deep gash in the thigh, which put him out of action. The Tweed man being the victor had earned the right to the gin.

PEACE DECLARED
Then after a very strenuous day peace was declared between the two tribes, and they all adjourned to a bend in Currie’s Creek Just opposite the Carlton Park racecourse saddling paddock, which was three parts surrounded by dense scrub.

Camp was then struck at this spot for a month to celebrate the wedding of the young couple. Before the wedding feast the wounded warrior was given medical attention by the medical man of the tribe. The doctor ordered a sheet of gum bark to he stripped from a tree and brought to him. He also ordered a fire to be lighted. He then took a piece of the Inner bark and placed it on the fire. Eucalyptus was then laid on the hark, which was then laid on the wound, which was bleeding very freely. As each piece of bark became cold a fresh piece was laid on the wound, and this was continued until the bleeding was stopped. The wound became quite clean, and in a few weeks after treatment the warrior was walking about again.”

‍

“My father told me that in his father’s time the Malanugga-nugga came in from the coast to raid the Alawa, carrying off our women and killing our men.

Perhaps that accounts for the fact that today the Alawa is not a numerically strong tribe. Our women were taken back into the escarpment, perhaps to places like Burruindju where we found human bones. There they were impregnated and kept alive while they continued to produce children. But barreness inevitably meant death.

It required extraordinary cunning and stealth for any group of people to make an undetected approach on the Alawa, but the Malanugga-nugga could do it. They moved quickly between waterholes, never showing a smoke, never talking, careful that they did not flush big flights of birds, until the moment when they flung themselves upon my people, slaughtering the men while they slept and making off with the potential mothers of their children.

‍The raiding parties were known as Gulgar. No more terryfing word existed in the Waliburu langage. They descended upon us in hundreds, throwing spears and boomerangs indiscriminately and thrashing about them with nulla-nullas which cracked skulls and limbs.

There were times, of course, when the Alawa carried out reprisal raids, but from what I have been able to learn they were not often successful. Our blood is still relatively pure...

The Alawa once believe themselves destined to rule all the aborigines, a fantasy not unknown in the white world. To achieve this, one of our raiding parties stole a number of rifles from an O.T. Line camp and went looking for the Mara people at Wadanardja below the Roper.

They had recently raided us and this was to be their moment of truth. The Malanugga-nugga would be next.

But the only people killed that day were hit with spears and boomerangs. My people fired the rifles aimlessly into the air, unaware that the bullet and not the explosion of a cartridge was lethal.”

‍

“Once George illuminated his conversation with an aphorism.

Describing a battle between the Tully River blacks and those of Clump Point, in which his mate, Tom of Dunk Island (leader of the Clump Point party), had been severely wounded, he said

—’Nother fella boy from outside, come up behind Tom. He no look out that way. That boy tchuk ’em boomerang. Boomerang stick in leg belonga Tom. Tom no feel ’em first time. He stan’ up yet. Bi’mby when want walk about, tumble down. Look out. Hello! see ’em boomerang alonga leg. He no more can walk about.

‍
The boss remarked—Might be long time, Tom feel ’em leg sore.

‍
George—Ah! me like see ’em kill alonga head. Finish ’em one time. Danger nebber dead.

‍
Whether George wished to enforce the opinion that in battle nothing short of death was glorious, or that Tom though wounded was still valorous and would live to fight again, was not clear, but Danger nebber dead, probably represents the only aboriginal aphorism extant.”

‍

“A tribal fight took place yesterday between aborigines near the town.

The Pindinnie blacks considered they had a grievance because one of their women joined the Kalgoorlie blacks.

The Pindinnie men arrived at Kalgoorlie a couple of days ago, and after some unsuccessful parleyings an attack was made. Both parties assembled in full force with spears and boomerangs, and all perfectly naked.

The fight lasted a couple of hours. One man was speared in the small of the back and another through the thigh. The former was able to walk today, but the latter had to be carried to the hospital. Both belong to the Kalgoorlie tribe.

There were a number of minor injuries on both sides. The police today proceeded to the scene and fired over the heads of the blacks, who then ran away and are now hiding in the scrub.

One Pindinnie native has been arrested. About 200 natives took part in the fight. Several white residents in the locality witnessed tho battle from a distance.”

‍

Summary: Here is a description of the main forms of warfare amongst the Aborigines.

‍Detail :

THE ATNINGA OR AVENGING PARTY
“Very often one group of natives, that is, the members of a tribe inhabiting a particular locality, will quarrel with the members of some other group either belonging to the same, or some other tribe.

The quarrel is ususallly due to one of two causes: either some man has stolen a wife from some other group, or else the death of a native is attributed by the medicine man to the magic of some member of a distant group. When this is so, the aggrieved party will arrange to make an attack upon the men who are regarded as the aggressors.

Most often the attackers, armed with spears and spear-throwers, boomerangs, and shields, will march up to the enemies' camp and the quarrel will be confined to a wordy warfare, lasting perhaps for an hour or two, after which tgngfs quieten down, and all is over; but in some a cases, regular fight takes place, in which severe wounds may be inflicted.

In other cases the attacking party will steal down upon the enemy, and, lying in ambush, will await an opportunity of spearing one or two of the men without risk to themselves.

The following incidient which happened recently will serve to show what often takes place.

The men living in the country round about Alice Springs in the Macdonnell Range were summoned by Inwurra, that is, properly accredited messengers carrying Churinga, who had been sent out by the Alatunja of the group to assemble for the purpose of making war upon the Iliaura tribe, which occupies the country between eighty and a hundred miles to the north of the Ranges.

‍
For a long time the northern groups of the Arunta tribe had been in fear of the Iliaura, who had been continually sending in threatening messages, or at least it was constantly reported that they were doing so, for it must be remembered that imagination plays a large part in matters such as these amongst the natives.

Several deaths also, which had taken place amongst the Arunta, had been attributed by the medicine men to the evil magic of certain of the Iliaura men.

When the messengers and the men summoned had assembled at Alice Springs a council of the elder men was held, at which it was determined to make a raid on the Iliaura, and accordingly a party was organised for the purpose. Such an avenging party is called an Atninga.

‍
When all was prepared the Atninga started away for the north and, after travelling for several days, came upon a group of Iliaura men, consisting of about a dozen families, near to whom they camped for two days.

‍
As usual on such occasions, the Iliaura sent some of their women over to the strangers’ camp, but the fact that the use of the women was declined by the visitors at once indicated that the mission of the latter was not a friendly one.

The women are offered with a view of conciliating the Atninga men who, if they accept the favour, indicate by so doing that the quarrel will not be pursued any further.

In the Iliaura community were two old men and with them matters were discussed by the elder men amongst the Arunta at a spot some little distance from the camp of the latter.

After a long talk extending over two days, during which the strangers set forth their grievances and gave the Iliaura men very clearly to understand that they were determined to exact vengeance, the two old men said, in effect,

“Go no further. Our people do not wish to quarrel with your people; there are three bad men in our camp whom we Iliaura do not like, they must be killed. Two are Iturka (that is men who have married within the forbidden degrees of relationship); the other is very quarrelsome and strong in magic and has boasted of killing your people by means of Kurdaitcha and other magic. Kill these men, but do not injure any others in our camp, and we will help you.”

‍
These terms were accepted by the Arunta, and it was agreed between the old men of the two parties that an attempt should be made to kill the three men on the next day. At daylight the old men of the Iliaura went some little distance away from their camp, and there made a fire, and called up the other men of their party.

This special fire, at which it is intended to surprise and kill the men who have been condemned and handed over to the tender mercies of their enemies, is called Thara (the ordinary word for fire being Ura). At the Atninga camp another fire, also called Thara, was lighted at the same time.

‍
Shortly after daylight a number of the Arunta, led by an old man, went over to the Thara of the Iliaura, all of them being unarmed, and here they took special care to engage the condemned men in conversation.

The remainder of the Atninga party in full war-paint, with whittled sticks in their hair, their bodies painted with red ochre, carrying spears, boomerangs, and shields, and each one wearing the magic Kirra-urkna or girdle made of a dead man’s hair, crept up unseen and, suddenly springing up, speared two of the condemned men from behind. The third man — one of the two Iturka — had grown suspicious during the night and had accordingly decamped, taking his women with him.

A large number of spears were thrown into the bodies of the men who were killed. When they were dead the Atninga party danced round the bodies, and taking the whittled sticks or Ilkunta from their heads, broke them up and threw the pieces on to the bodies. These Ilkunta are always worn by certain groups of the Northern Arunta when they really mean to fight, and amongst the same natives also under these circumstances little curved flakes are cut by means of flints on their spears about a foot from the pointed end.

The Iliaura men looked on quietly while the killing took place, and when all was over, the spears were taken out of the bodies by the men of the Arunta who had acted as decoys, and were handed back to their respective owners.

It is supposed that if the latter themselves removed them some great evil would befall them, as the body and anything in contact with it of a victim killed in this way is strictly tabu to the killer.”

“At a corrobborie which I witnessed, held preparatory to marriage, the betrothed husband wore a belt from which hung in front the small apron of fringes, with a tail of black feathers dependant behind...

The corrobborie was after the usual order, and seemingly set forth the prowess of the man, his dexterity with the spear, and skill in the chase, and I think it may be read as a challenge in which the man publicly announces his intention to take the maid. Women and children were present.

On the next day there was great emotion, as a rumour of another blackfellow having declared his intention to catch the girl spread. At night in the camp there was a veritable babel of tongues, the women discussing the matter in all its bearings in their camp, and with their neighbours across the camps. Occasional1y above the din an old lady would harangue, and now and again the headman in the Wulnar camp, the father of Long'aba, would answer in a speech delivered from his camp 150 yards distant.

It was long after midnight before the camp was quiet. Towards five on the following day the Larrakia congregated near the camp and two sides formed, armed with reed spears.

In the open space between the two lines of spectators sometimes a single black would hurl his spears one after another at an opposing blackfellow who would as adroitly avoid them, ducking his head, bending his back, or shifting s1ightly to one side, while sometimes seven or eight on each side would be engaged.

As the spears were thrown others gathered them up, and in their turn hurled thm back. Occasionally, but rarely, spears were flying in both directions. Two or three were wounded, and in one the spear stood in his skull over the ear. He staggered, and the spear being pulled out, was carried into the scrub. I did not expect to see him alive again, but he was about some days after.

I noticed that good humour prevailed throughout and that the contestants appeared to be actuated more by a desire to exhibit their skill than instigated by bad blood.

Muttered signs of approval, irrespective of the side, were given at any good throws or a particularly clever avoidance of the spears, and hearty applause, much laughter, and derision when there was a hit.

After dusk the uproar of the preceding night was resumed, but the next day it was known that the rivals were to settle the question by a duel with clubs, he with the hardest head to win the maiden's hand.

The result was adverse to the betrothed and later, when the girl fled and was pursued by the tribe, it was by the gallant who had won her love she was captured.”

‍

“A pitched battle was fought between the Cooktown blacks and the allied M’Ivor and Normanby tribes at North Shore.

The casus belli [an act or situation that provokes or justifies a war] being a gin stolen by a Cooktown boy from the Normanby tribe.

Two Cooktown boys were speared, and one is believed to be fatally injured, the spear having pierced his abdomen.”

‍

“In May 1887 a fight erupted at Rapid Creek that showed up some deep rift of misunderstanding between the missionaries and the locals.

The Alligator Rivers people camping at the Rapid Creek had run out of food, so the missionaries gave them a sack of flour.

This caused the enmity of the Larrakia and Woolner, who evidently considered the missionaries and all their supplies as ’theirs’.

One of the Elders, ’a man of considerable eloquence’, left the station enraged (and ’without the necessary permission’).

Much debate ensued until the men painted themselves and battled it out at the beach four miles from the mission. Five men were injured and one from the Alligator Rivers died from his wounds.”

‍

“In the next borboby one person happened to be pierced by a spear, which, being barbed, could not be removed.

His tribe carried him about with them for three days before he died.”

“After such a conflict the reader possibly expects a description of fallen warriors swimming in blood.

But rela­tives and friends take care that none of the combatants are injured.

Mortal wounds are extremely rare.

Mangoran had received a slight wound in the arm above the elbow from a boomerang, and was therefore pitied by everybody.”

"A district pioneer who recalls a tribal fight between aborigines at Fairy Hill, has been revisiting the Far North Coast after an absence of 26 years.

‍
He is 75-year-old Walter Cook, of King Street, East lake, Sydney. The Cook family owned all the land where Broadwater is now situated and were its first settlers.

When the family moved to Fairy Hill — which is eight miles from Casino towards Kyogle — they were among its pioneer settlers.

‍
The only ones before them were Mr. Johnny Reeves and his family. The tribal fight started over the seizure of a woman of the Northern Rivers tribe by Clarence River natives.

About 60 warriors in full warpaint clashed at Fairy Hill, a few hundred yards from the Cook home.
‍

Mr. Cook recalled that, although he was only aged four then, he was more thrilled than afraid.

Spears were hurled, nulla nullas used, and at least two deaths resulted in addition to many injuries before the fracas ended. Some wounded natives were treated by his mother. ”

‍

“About 1875, just before the establishment of the earliest stations on the Finke River, a sud den catastrophe overwhelmed the local Aranda group of Irbmangkara. A middle-aged man, called Kalejika, who belonged to a Central Aranda local group, paid a visit to Irbmangkara, and then told some Upper Southern Aranda men that Ltjabakuka, the aged and highly respected ceremonial chief of Irbmangkara, together with some of his assistant elders, had committed sacrilege by giving uninitiated boys men’s blood to drink from a shield into which it had been poured for ritual purposes. According to an old Aranda custom, fully initiated young novices, at a certain point of their manhood ritual, used to be given blood to drink which had been drawn from the veins of their elders. This was done during a special rite which was spoken of only in whispers of fearful secrecy. To offer any of this blood to uninitiated boys would have been a particularly detestable form of sacrilege. In Christian terms, it would have been equivalent to the action of a priest who had poured consecrated communion wine from a chalice into the drinking mugs of children attending a carefree birthday party. It seems incredible that Ltjabakuka and his elders would even have considered indulging in such a frivolous perversion of one of the most sacred Aranda rites; but Kalejika was an esteemed elder in his own region, and a number of Upper Southern Aranda men believed his story, or perhaps pretended to believe it in order to satisfy some private grudges that they might have held against Ltjabakuka. For sacrilege was an offence always punished by death. In the pre-white days capital punishment was easy enough to inflict when the offender was a young man. But when the ceremonial chief of an important centre and his chief elders had been accused of sacrilege, the only persons who could be called upon to punish them were men who came from totemic centres linked by myths with the home of the offenders. Though Tnauutatara lay in Upper Southern Aranda territory, few of the Tnauutatara clansmen were keen to undertake a raid on Irbmangkara: too many of them were linked by personal kinship ties with the Irbmangkara group, and no man could be compelled against his wish to kill his own kinsfolk. Similar kinship considerations affected the Western Aranda groups living along the mythical trail linking Irbmangkara and Kularata; indeed, these groups dismissed Kalejika’s story with indignation as an empty fabrication of malicious lies. It was rather easier to stir up to action some of the Matuntara men who lived on the trail linking Walbmara and Irbmangkara. In the end a band of avengers was organised, consisting of perhaps fifty to sixty warriors. Most of these were Matuntara men, but there were a few Upper Southern Aranda men to be found among them.
The latter, as was to be expected, came mainly from places in the Horseshoe Bend area, situ ated more than a hundred miles away from Irbmangkara. However, at least two Upper Southern Aranda men from closer sites - Kangkia, who came from the eagle centre of Pmoierka, and Kaminnga, who came from the emu centre of Erpalka - were persuaded to join the avenging party. The leader of the combined band was a Matuntara man called Tjinawariti, who came from the region south of Tempe Downs. The name Tjinawariti, which meant literally eagle’s foot, was the term given to the Southern Cross in the Matuntara area. Tjinawariti, who belonged to the eagle totem, was a man renowned both for his height and for his prowess with spear and boomerang. Another important man in the avenging band was Kapaluru, a native cat totem ceremonial chief from Akaua, on the Palmer River. His influence was directly responsible for the addition of several more young warriors to Tjinawariti’s band. And so, late one afternoon in 1875, three par ties of warriors, hidden among the bushes of the nearby mountain slopes and in the undergrowth in the river bed at their foot, were watching the men and women of Irbmangkara returning to their camp at Urualbukara, laden with the game and the vegetable foods which they had gath ered during the day, for since the upper pools of Irbmangkara constituted closed territory to all except the initiated males on ceremonial occasions, the normal camping grounds of the Irbmangkara folk were located at Urualbukara, the southernmost pool, four miles below the source of the springs. The avengers were numerous enough to form a group of tnengka, this term being the name given to a body of men who could overwhelm a whole camp of victims by means of an open attack made in broad daylight. The only reason for this party’s going into hiding was to ensure that every member of the Irbmangkara population had returned to the camp before the murderous assault was under taken. These fifty or sixty tnengka had accordingly been split into three parties upon arrival at Urualbukara two parties took up positions on the hill slopes of Ilaltilalta and Lalkitnama respectively, while the third hid in the thick under growth that covered the river bed south of the camps. This arrangement was intended to frustrate any attempts of escape on the part of the victims.
The sun had sunk very low in the western sky before the waiting warriors could be reasonably certain that all members of the Irbmangkara camp had returned. Keeping under the cover of bushes and trees, the armed men crept forward with the relentless and uncanny skill of hunters used to stalking suspicious game animals. As soon as the clearing around the camp had been reached, they rushed in, like swift dingoes upon a flock of unsuspecting emus. Spears and boomerangs flew with deadly aim. Within a matter of minutes Ltjabakuka and his men were lying lifeless in their blood at their brush shelters. Then the warriors turned their murderous attention to the women and older children, and either speared or clubbed them to death. Finally, according to the grim custom of warriors and avengers, they broke the limbs of the infants, leaving them to die natural deaths. The final number of the dead could well have reached the high figure of from eighty to a hundred men, women, and children. Before leaving the stricken camp, the bodies of all clubbed victims were prodded with spears to make certain that there was no life left in them. For the warriors had to be sure beyond all doubt that no eyewitnesses had survived who could later on incite reprisals against them. Satisfied that they had carried out their grim task with flawless precision, the warriors now left the Urualbukara camp. But they had made one fatal mistake. Laparintja, one of Ltjabakuka’s wives, though severely clubbed, had merely shammed death, and had succeeded in stifling her urge to scream while being prodded by a spear point. She had in addition successfully covered her blood stained baby son Kaltjirbuka under her own prostrate body. As soon as the avengers had departed, she raised herself cautiously; and, taking her child with her, she had slowly wriggled towards the bulrush thickets that grew on the edges of the closest pool. Once she had reached the bulrushes, it was an easy matter for her to make good her escape northward to Irbmangkara, and beyond the uppermost pools towards Arbanta, where another camp of Irbmangkara folk was located.
As the warriors were about to return home, an unpleasant surprise awaited them: Nameia, a middle-aged Irbmangkara man, who was very late in returning from the hunt, suddenly burst into view. He was accompanied by a second man called Ilbalta who belonged, like himself, to the Paltara class. Suddenly fearful of having their grim deed betrayed to avengers, the warriors rushed at both hunters and hurled their spears and boomerangs at them in a frenzy of alarm. Ilbalta was handicapped by an old cut in the leg, and was quickly brought down and speared to death. But Nameia, though hurt by a spear-thrust in one leg, proved unexpectedly fleetfooted. When his pursuers drew uncomfortably close to him, he stopped, picked up some of the spears that had missed him, and threw them back at his attackers. The latter paused for a few moments, and the break enabled Nameia to continue his flight. Since rising clouds of smoke in the distance showed that there were other camps of people located upstream from Irbmangkara, the warriors did not dare to pursue him too far, lest they should encounter additional late-returning hunters. Tjinawariti called off the chase, and then dismissed from further service those Southern Aranda men who had assisted him, so that they could return to their homes. After that he set off for Akaua with his Matuntara followers. Over the whole band of tnengka warriors there now hung the fear of terrible retribution: Nameia had seen most of them, and had recognised all those that he had seen; for every man in the band had been a visitor to Irbmangkara in former years. Moreover, though Nameia’s conception site was situated at Tnotitja, on the Finke River upstream from Pantjindama, his parents had both been Matuntara people. His father Kurubila had been an important ceremonial chief from the great Matuntara native cat centre of Akaua. Many of the warriors who had raided Irbmangkara had hence been his personal relatives.
Nameia, like Laparintja, made his way up the Finke valley to Arbanta. Like Laparintja, Nameia was completely overwhelmed by grief. His West ern Aranda wife Tjakiljika, who came from Kaporilja Springs near Hermannsburg, and his two younger sons Pmatupatuna and Unkuarintana, had died in the general slaughter at Irbmang kara. Both Nameia and Laparintja quickly spread the grim story of the massacre at Ar banta and at other camps nearby; and soon the gorge walls above lrbmangkara were echoing with the wails of men, women and children, who were mourning their dead kinsfolk. Some days later several members of the Irbmangkara group who had been away on visits to other camps returned to Urualbukara, and buried the dead victims. The maimed infants had all perished in the meantime.
The next step taken by the survivors was the selection and the ceremonial dedication and fit ting out of a revenge party, who would be com missioned to go out as leltja and kill all of the men responsible for the massacre, down to the last guilty participant. Messengers went out as far as Njenkuguna in Central Aranda territory, Ulamba and Jamba in Northern Aranda territory, and the Ellery Creek and Upper Finke valley portions of Western Aranda territory; and everywhere mourning rites took place for the dead during which moral support was enlisted for the punishment of the Irbmangkara raiders. Finally a small party of avengers, chosen for their special prowess with weapons and their special skills in bushcraft, was assembled near Manta on the Finke River, some miles upstream from Irbmangkara. Here the men were put through the special ritual which was believed to endow avengers with the ability to creep upon their unsuspecting victims in safety and to evade without difficulty the spears of their enemies. For, unlike a band of tnengka warriors capable of de stroying a whole camp in broad daylight, the leltja were avengers who had to move stealthily through hostile territory in order to kill isolated individuals who had left the security of their main group camps. After passing through their special ritual, the members of this leltja party made their way down the Finke valley. Their leader was Nameia, who had by now fully recovered from his wounds.
The party included at least two of Ltjabakuka’s sons, also several of his close relatives. But the numbers of the avengers had to be kept to the lowest possible limits commensurate with safety. Possibly no more than ten men went out on this revenge expedition. They knew that it would take them at least a couple of years to achieve their retaliatory errand. For they were moving into the well-populated country of enemies who were expecting a reprisal visit, and who were therefore on their guard. They would have to pick their victims off, perhaps one man, and certainly no more than three men, at a time, preferably when they were out hunting; and after each kill the avengers would have to lie low for weeks till their victims’ relatives had given up looking for them. They would have to live off the land in hostile territory, and often move about singly so that any persons sighted from a distance accidentally could not raise an alarm about a travelling band of warriors. But with their own lives continually at stake, these leltja avengers killed and waited between kills with the determination and the patience of highly intelligent beasts of prey. Sometimes the killing of a man might involve also the killing of his wife and children in order to wipe out all danger of eyewitness evidence. But slowly they achieved their purpose. One of the few Irbmangkara raiders who escaped retribution was Kangkia. He was cornered, but succeeded in convincing the avengers that he had been compelled by force to accompany the tnengka band, and that he had hung back during the attack so as not to kill anyone personally.
After they had picked off the guilty Aranda warriors, Nameia’s band of avengers moved from the Horseshoe Bend area across the South Australian border as far south as the Hamilton River; for some of the Matuntara men had gone down into this distant region. After that the avengers made their way back in a north westerly direction into the Palmer valley. In the end even the dreaded and watchful Tjinawariti and the respected Kapaluru succumbed to their spears. After these final successes the avenging party hastened to return to the security of the Krichauff Ranges, probably at some point south of Alitera; and then they made their proud return journey up the Finke River into Western Aranda territory. Here they found that the world which they had left behind over three years earlier had changed completely. It was 1878 by now; and white men had invaded their land during their long and dangerous absence. The first structures built by white men greeted their eyes on the banks of the Finke at Hermannsburg. Their friends and relatives in the native camp were overjoyed to see their courageous kinsmen returning. Their spare and gaunt forms proved how tough life had been for them during the past three years, and how often they had had to endure hungry days and nights because there had been too many enemy hunters waiting for them in the best game country. But they had achieved their object, and there had not been a single casualty among them. They were given a heroes’ welcome, and no one ever forgot the amazing achievement of these warriors an achievement that would bear comparison with that of any modern guerilla fighters in any other part of the world.”

“There has been another disturbance amongst the natives. Early on the 10th almost all Larrakeyahs came into our camp in a frantic state, asking every one to lend them spears, as a large number of the neighbouring tribe, the Woolnahs, were about to attack their camp.

This they did during the morning: but the Larrakeyahs having been well supplied with spears, rather astonished them, for, after exchanging two or three showers of spears, and having two of their party wounded, they cleared off to Doctor’s Gully for a time. I

n the cool of the evening we were informed they were having it out on a sandy beach about a quarter of a mile distant. I proceeded with several others to see the fight and it was certainly one of the most romantic scenes I ever beheld.

We stood on the cliff just above the sable warriors, and not more than ninety or a hundred feet away, the descent being very abrupt, but with some large trees, covered with creepers, growing between high-water mark and where we stood.

‍
There was, fortunately, a break in the foliage between us and the natives, which enabled us to see all that took place, their dusky forms showing out distinctly on the white sand. When we first arrived they were engaged in a wordy war, abusing and defying each other, and making the most unearthly noise imaginable.

In a few minutes they had worked themselves up to a fighting point, and spears were flying from both sides. How they managed to avoid them Heaven only knows; but it was an extraordinary sight to see sixty or seventy men jumping from side to side, leaping in the air, and, throwing their spears at the same time.

We could also now and again hear the dull thud of the metpardings or club. The lubras, some with piccaninnies on their back, kept behind either party, pick up the spears and handing them to their lords and masters.

‍
When any of them chanced to be hit they all set up a most unearthly yell, and kept on urging the men on to fresh exertions. Some of them came up the cliffs and asked us to come down and fight for them, and drive the Woolnahs back to their own country.

On telling them that the whites had no intention of interfering in their quarrels, they perfectly understood us, but still urged us to come down and speak to the Woolnahs that we know.

‍
This we did, and, strange to say, in two minutes they were talking to us and to each other, as though nothing had been further from their thoughts than fighting.

We found that three or four had been wounded, and one was said to be mortally hit, a spear having entered his chest.

It being nearly dark, we started back to camp, and had hardly got on the top of the cliff before they were it again.”

‍

“One day we crossed a valley, where he told me many blacks had at one time lived of whom not a trace was now to be seen.

They had gradually been killed and eaten by other tribes. ”

‍

“One such rule involved sending a messenger down south before the expedition set out, to ask permission from the local group having custody of the mine, to open the way.

Reuther gives an example of the trouble caused when this was not done.

Elderly Adnjamathanha men recall being told of such an incident which must have occurred in about 1870. They claim that the required messengers, two women, were not sent down before the main party as was the usual custom.

Deprived of their happy times, as an informant put it, the older men of the local group closed the trade boundary.

When the expedition arrived notwithstanding, the locals, led by the notorious Larrikin Tom, ambushed the party in the mine and disposed of them all but one.”

‍

“Many of the Brisbane blacks have lately been working for settlers in the neighborhood, but so quietly had the arrangements for the fight been kept that little or nothing was known of it until an unusual stillness in the camps directed attention to something unusual being on foot.

It was then found that the black were making a general muster, and about 9 am. fierce yells showed their whereabouts. Some whites, attracted by the noise, were now on the field of battle, but all their efforts could not stop a fight from taking place, until many of the blacks were wounded, not a few of them seriously.

The women of the tribes seemed the must eager for the fighting, and by their yelling encouraged the men to ’go in’ again after some of them evidently, if left alone, thought they bad enough of it.”

Summary : A massive staged battle in Coffs Harbour area. Three killed and dozens wounded but then all attend a big Corroboree afterwards.

Details :

“Blacks Tribal Fight

A Unique Experience
Mr. Walter Harvie of Coffs Harbour, who is now 83 years of age, was the only white witness of the biggest aboriginal tribal fight along this coast in the last 60 years. It was about 40 years ago. Mr. Harvie describes the unique incident as follows:

I was drawing cedar from Bongal scrubs to the Bellinger at the time, and employed two black boys. Their father was boss of the coast blacks from the Bellinger to a good distance north. We named him ‘Long Billy’.

The boys were about 16 and 18 years of age and very intelligent. They were very useful to me in minding the bullocks. Naturally they wanted to go and see the fight, and they asked me to go with them. I went -- partly because I was anxious as they were to see the fight and partly because I wanted to keep in touch with the boys, in case they might be enticed away. They had been with me about two years and could speak English. Later they joined the Queensland black police.

Aboriginal Customs
The two boys I had were ‘Caperas’, which meant that they were a stage between boys and men. They had undergone their examinations by the heads of the tribes some time previously for promotion to manhood, although it was not in such a severe form as in former years.

But they were barred from eating certain kinds of food. Bush turkeys, goannas and flying foxes were taboo, also several kinds of game, but fish, oysters, damper and any other food were allowed. They were debarred from living in the camp with other blacks, particularly if there were any women or girls about.

They had an appointed chaperone, who was always with them. He was generally an old aborigine who, in addition to his fighting implements carried a nitched piece of thin wood with strings attached, which made a buzzing sound when whirled in the air. It was a ‘row row’, and when used in the right way would make a row all right. This was used by the man in charge to keep all stragglers away from where the caperas were. There were other caperas in the group besides my two boys.

The Battle Ground
The battle ground was on the bald ridges between Bongal and Boambi Creeks and when we arrived there we met a great number of blacks. The fighting men were naked, except for strong belts in which they carried their fighting implements. Their bodies were painted with fantastic stripes of different colours.

They carried spears and heelaman in their hands. The heelaman was a piece of light wood about 16 or 18 inches long and about 14 inches wide, rounded on one side, and it had a grip hold for the hand on the flat side. This was their shield for warding off spears and blows from other weapons.

I was directed by the head men to stay with the boys, as I would be safe with them from any weapons flying about. The boys soon found a suitable spot from which we would have a good view, and all the time the old chap kept up a noise with his whirling machine to keep intruders away.

The Battle
The fighting men were rushing about making an unearthly row on both sides, but after a time they got into two lines about 50 yards apart. Then a large number on either side fell back as reserves, some distance away.

Two men who appeared to be distinguished warriors jumped out in front of each line and made short speeches. When they finished they threw the boomerangs, which was a signal for a general clash. There was a yell that could be heard a long distance away and boomerangs and throwing sticks filled the air like flocks of birds.

After they had expended all these missiles they started with spears about 10 feet long, of which they had great numbers. It was wonderful to see how they could elude them, knocking them aside, catching them on the heelaman, jumping straight up to let them pass underneath their feet, and even catching them in their hands and returning them like a flash. But each man kept his eyes glued on his opponent. Spears were picked up by the toes and returned, and it was wonderful how they could protect themselves behind the heelaman.

After about half-an-hour's strenuous fighting the front line men had used up all their weapons. Then the front line fell back on both sides, removing all who had been put out of action. The reserves took their place in the line and the fighting went on as fierce as before.

When all the spears and boomerangs were used up the others joined in and they started with copens, a very dangerous weapon about 3 feet long with a heavy knob at the end. The contestants then got scattered in pairs over about half-a-mile of clear ridge and there was very fierce hand to hand fighting. We had a good view from where we were and could hear their weapons clashing on the shields. There were desperate yells and we could see the men falling, but whether they were seriously wounded or not we could not tell.

About an hour from the time the battle started we could see that both sides had had enough. The southerners began to get away to their camp in twos and threes, and shortly afterwards there was a general stampede and the battle was over, bar the shouting and rattle of weapons.

When the noise had quietened down there was much talk between the leaders and the different tribes (there were a number of tribes engaged) and soon they came to an agreement and began to attend to the wounded, of whom there were many. Some were so seriously wounded that they never recovered. I was told that three were killed outright in the fight.

I made a rough count and calculated that about 500 men were engaged in the battle. They were the finest crowd of men I've ever seen together -- tall and muscular, and every one an athlete of no mean calibre.

The lubras were very plucky. They ran about among the fighting men picking up weapons that had been used.

I believe I am the only white man in New South Wales, and perhaps in Australia, who has ever witnessed such an exhibition. It would have made a fine picture, especially the hand to hand fighting near the finish, which was very fierce, and there were dozens lying about the ground in various attitudes. [24 wounded?-Ed.] A great many had to be carried off to the different camps. The carriers made rough stretchers of saplings to carry those who could not walk and the wounded were attended to by old aborigines and lubras, who seemed to be experts at fixing up spear wounds and broken heads.

A Big Corroboree
I saw some that had to be helped off the battlefield taking part in the big corroboree that was held at night. There must have been over 1000 blacks congregated there, all in nature's garb except for short fringes worn around their hips by the lubras and pieces of skin of some animal hanging from the belts of the men.

They had no blankets - the government dole had not reached this far. But they had plenty of rugs well tanned and sewn with a thread of their own make.

‍
All the tribes took part in the corroboree. I remember that one part was a kangaroo hunt. A number of the blacks camped at Boambi for a long time, feeding and tending the men who were were wounded in the fight. I was running my bullock team there and was often about my run. Although they must have been often on short allowances of food they never interfered with my bullocks.

‍
I noticed in a Sydney paper some months ago where a writer stated that aboriginals never used the boomerang in their fights. That is wrong. I have seen several, and the boomerang was always the principal weapon used.

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:
The two sentences highlighted in italics immediately above have been inserted for the sake of historical completeness. They appeared in the original handwritten account submitted by Walter Harvie to the newspaper editor but were omitted from the published version. The heading and sub-headings were all inserted by that editor.

In the language spoken by central and north coast of New South Wales aboriginal tribes the term caperas, said by Walter Harvie to have applied to youths of the mid-north coast tribes whilst they were undergoing the initiation into manhood process, is more usually spelt caparras or keeparras - for that spelling see a 1899 description of the keeparra initiation ceremonies practiced by the tribes of the Port Stephens area. The implement referred to by Walter Harvie as a ‘row row’ is today generally termed a bullroarer, ‘copens’ a nulla nulla, and ‘heelaman’ a shield.

Walter Harvie was born in Nova Scotia in 1843 and arrived in Australia in 1860. He was acknowledged by his peers as having been the first white settler in 1865 at Coffs Harbour on the Mid North Coast of New South Wales. His assumption he may have been the only person in NSW, or even in Australia, to have witnessed such a large tribal battle was astray. Other written accounts of persons witnessing similar have been noted. For instance an anglican minister Rev. James Hassell (1823-1904), in his 1902 published autobiography titled In Old Australia : records and reminiscences from 1794, mentioned when he was a scholar from 1832 to 1835 at The King's School in the Sydney suburb of Parramatta in NSW he and other boys witnessed similar large tribal battles in that area.”

Coffs Harbour Advocate, 1929 may 21st

Also :

« Mr. Walter Harvie, Coffs Harbour’s first white settler, has something to say in reply to Mr. James Grayson, of the Nambucca River, who in a recent issue of the Nambucca News made the suggestion that Mr. Harvie’s memory must have slipped a cog in his recollections of old-time black fellow battles in these parts.

Mr. Grayson can take it from us that there is not much wrong with Mr. Harvie’s memory. What he says hereunder will show that he knows what he is talking about.

‍
In his article Mr. Grayson described Mr. Harvie as a pioneer of the Nambucca, and went on to say, He gives an account of a dinkum abo. battle which he tells us took place 40 years ago, when 500 bucks took the field.

‍
With all due respect for Mr. Grayson, says Mr. Harvie, I wish state that I never was a pioneer of the Nambucca, never saw a blacks’ fight there, and never wrote an article saying that I did see one on that river.

But I saw a pretty lively scrap between the Bellinger and other tribes between the two arms of the Bellinger about 45 years ago.

‍
A Bagawa black was badly wounded in the leg and several others were badly hurt; but they patched it up by holding a corroboree at night, which many of the settlers went to see, with their families.

‍
Referring to Mr. Grayson’s remark that the last big fight of the blacks took place in Queensland about 66 years ago, Mr. Harvie says perhaps he is right. But I am not interested in that, he adds.

The fight that I witnessed took place in the year 1866, on the Bald Hills, about half a mile south of Boambee Creek, near Bonville Reserve. I made a rough count of about 600 fighting’ men, and every one was an athlete.

They told me that one Macleay River black was killed, and I know that several were wounded and never recovered. »

‍

‍

“The men of Countries 8 and 9 opposed the men of Countries 4 and 5 in an open fight at Yapilika.

‍Wilinguwa of Country 9 speared and killed Wamokayalami.”

“The funeral of Mr. John Thomas Greer, of Petersham, formerly one of the most picturesque figures on the North Coast, took place at Fermnount, Bellinger Elver (says the Sydney Sun).

‍
Mr Greer, who went to the Bellinger River almost 70 years ago, was 82 years of age. With his father and brothers, he went from the Macleay River by packhorse, crossing the Nambucca in a cedar dug-out. They were among the first few settlers on the river.

‍
Mr. Greer witnessed a most unusual tribal battle between the aborigines some 67 years ago. Two tribes, the warriors numbering over 1000, met on the Bellinger, at a spot now known as North Beach. A pitched battle occurred, and continued for several hours, although casualties were few.

‍
One of the combatants was a half caste named Yellow George, who died a few years ago In the Macleay district. Yellow George was struck with three spears simultaneously. Although his wounds were only slight, he became infuriated, dashed into a hut, and secured a muzzle-loading gun and returned to the fray. That settled the battle, the enemy disappearing without a shot being fired.”

“A correspondent sends us an account of a great native battle which lasted two days.

The scene of the conflict is stated to have been contiguous to the Mission station, and the tribes engaged were on one side of the Murray, Lake Albert, and Coorong; upon the other, detachments from the Goolwa and Milang and neighbourhood.

About 190 warriors were engaged in the encounter; and, although our correspondent had not heard of any having died, there were upwards of twenty severely wounded.

One well-known blackfellow, George Merriman, received a wound two inches deep in the head. The police had been for some time on the alert to prevent this battle, but the natives took advantage of the absence of the troopers at bush fires to have their fight out without interruption.

“A correspondent sends us an account of a great native battle which lasted two days.

The scene of the conflict is stated to have been contiguous to the Mission station, and the tribes engaged were on one side of the Murray, Lake Albert, and Coorong; upon the other, detachments from the Goolwa and Milang and neighbourhood.

About 190 warriors were engaged in the encounter; and, although our correspondent had not heard of any having died, there were upwards of twenty severely wounded.

One well-known blackfellow, George Merriman, received a wound two inches deep in the head. The police had been for some time on the alert to prevent this battle, but the natives took advantage of the absence of the troopers at bush fires to have their fight out without interruption.

“About the year 1862 there was a big fight between the Swan Hill and Murray blacks at Dimboola (Nine Creeks at it was then called).

They fought for nearly one week, and came back with their arms and legs all bandaged up with mud and bark. When any of the blacks received injuries they first put soft clay on the wound, then laid a strip of bark over the clay, and then bound It with sinews from a kanaaroo's tail. They would leave this on until the broken limb or wound was healed.”

Constance Petrie, Tom Petrie’s reminiscences of Early Queensland. Brisbane : Watson, Ferguson & Co, 1904, p. 164

“Another big tulan, or fight, Father remembers at York’s Hollow (the Exhibition). He and his brother Walter were standing looking on, when a fighting boomerang thrown from the crowd circled round, and travelling in the direction of the brothers, struck Walter Petrie on the cheek, causing a deep flesh wound. The gins and blacks of the Brisbane tribe commenced to cry about this, and said that the weapon had come from the Bribie blacks’ side, and that they were no good, but wild fellows. The brothers went home, and the cut was sewn up. It did not take long to heal afterwards.
At that fight there must have been about eight hundred blacks gathered from all parts, and there were about twenty wounded. One very fine blackfellow lost his life. His name was Tunbur (maggot). In the fight he got hit on the ankle with a waddie, and next day died from lockjaw.”

Constance Petrie, Tom Petrie’s reminiscences of Early Queensland. Brisbane : Watson, Ferguson & Co, 1904, p. 161-163

“In these days, fierce fights often took place among the aboriginals in the vicinity of Brisbane, and the white boy, who was here and there and everywhere among the blacks, of course, witnessed them. Women fought as well as men, and on this second day Father noticed two gins of the same tribe — one a young girl of eighteen years, and the other over thirty — who seemed to have a quarrel to settle. They fought about a young man. One said he belonged to her, and the other said no, he belonged to her ; and the jealous pair fought and squabbled very savagely, using not only their tongues, but also their hands and weapons. The younger one seemed to be getting the better of it, when the other suddenly made a prod with her yam stick, and sticking the sharp point into her enemy’s body, killed her immediately.
The dead girl’s brother at this ran and felled the conqueror to the ground by a blow on the head with a waddie. The blow was so severe that the skull bone showed out, and the woman lay as one dead. Her body was carried to her hut then, as was also that of the other gin, and a great wailing and crying and hacking of flesh began. Amidst all this noise of the mourning it was hardly possible to hear oneself speak, and the white boy, growing a little frightened, went home.
Next day, when Father again went to see how things were, he found to his astonishment the wounded gin sitting up ; he had expected to find her dead. The wound on her forehead was filled in with fine charcoal. The body of the dead gin had been skinned and eaten.
A good many were wounded before this fight ended, the Brisbane side getting the better of it eventually. Afterwards, when all the tribes journeyed homewards in different directions, they took with them their wounded, carrying them on their shoulders, a leg on either side of the neck.”

William Stanbirdge, « Some Particulars of the General Characteristics, Astronomy, and Mythology of the Tribes in the Central Part of Victoria, Southern Australia », Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, vol. 1, 1861, p. 278

"Corroborees sometimes do not pass off so amicably ; an old grievance may be revived, or a new one may arise, which will not admit of friendly arrangements ; in which case they resort to fighting. Such was the position of affairs between certain tribes one beautiful November morning, when they adjourned from their camping ground to a little valley bright with flowers, the low hills on either side of which were thickly studded with shrubby trees. At the foot of the valley there was a clear lake, where swans and pelicans were sailing in all the pride of freedom; and on its margin, under some large gum trees, grew the white and blue forget-me-not, from which quail and snipe started at every step. Some rocky hills jutted into the opposite side of the lake, and beyond the plain stretched away up the valley of the Fiery Creek, till it met the wooded spurs of the Pyrenees, whose rounded heights closed the view. On the low hills on either side, amongst the shrubby trees, the belligerent tribes, about a hundred men in number, took up their respective positions, with loud shouts of defiance, and in constant motion, to enable them the more readily to avoid the missiles of their adversaries. Near the men, and round the upper part of the valley, the women were stationed in little groups. Suddenly the tribe on one side rushed in an irregular line down the hill, and, after having discharged their boomerangs, which trundled along the ground like hoops, up the hill of their opponents, instantly retreated to their partial cover. The other tribe then rushed down their hill, and discharged their boomerangs in the same manner at the retreating body; again the first tribe assault, and again their opponents repel it, every man vigorously leaping and shouting. While the young women collected the boomerangs and carried them to the men, occasionally exhorting them or fighting amongst themselves with their poles, the old women screamed and threw dust into the air, clasping their hands high over head, and quivering in every limb as it fell upon them. At length the men on either side seized their leeowils and mulkas, and rushed into the valley to meet each other hand to hand, fighting as with battleaxe and shield. In a brief space of time, a few bruises, scratches, and broken fingers, satisfy the contending parties, and all appear friends again.”

Philip Pepper, You are what you make yourself to be: The Story of a Victorian Aboriginal Family 1842-1980. Melbourne : Hyland House Publishing Pty Ltd, p. 38

"The last tribal fight, war really, was fought at the mouth of the Tambo river between Billy Thorpe’s tribe [Brabuwoolong] and the South Gippsland mob – the Port Alberts. It lasted all day and right into the evening. How it come about was the other tribe had got to the Tambo food-hunting and they decided to swim over to swan egging, but word soon reached the Swan Reach Aborigines and they got together, the men and the women too, and off they went with their war weapons, barbed spears, waddies, sticks, and killer boomerangs. (...)
The children were left in the camp with all the old people or anyone sick, they never went to the fights. Billy and George were only young lads and after the warriors left they nicked off after ’em, following for miles without being caught. They got part of the country where fires had been through and they had a job hiding there, just brunt trees, stumps and logs. They got spotted. Well, it was too far back to the old people, so their parents left them there, but well hidden in an old hollow log covered over with burnt branches. Grandfather told me ’it was ’olla all right but it had plenty stingin’ nettles inside’. Their people told these boys not to move out of that log till they got back.
The tribes met at the mouth of the Tambo River and they had a terrible battle, a lot of them killed and wounded on both sides. Grandfather told me ’it wasn’t till dusk our people come back past where we was, still in that ’olla log and we was howlin’ and yellin’, and it was Old Kitty Johnson and Dick Cooper who found us. My parents were both dead in the battle and so were George’s. Kitty took us and reared us up. (38) ”

Illustrated London News, 1854

"It appears from the Moreton Bay Free Press, published at Brisbane, that on December 22 last, one of those barbarous and disgraceful scenes was enacted among some of the aborigines, which are usually termed a war or fight, but which should rather be looked upon as among the superstitious ceremonies of a religion of which very little is known. The scene of the conflict was a fine green flat, above a mile beyond Burnett’s Swamp [near Stones Corner]; and here, on the afternoon of the above day, were assembled a number of blacks of the Amity Point, Logan, Bribe’s Island, and Ninny-Ninny (Ningy-Ningy) tribes - the former being opposed to the two latter; in all they amounted to about one hundred and fifty - men, women, and children. The cause of the quarrel was, a Logan black, called Harry having stolen a gin or female of one of the opposite tribes. The battle commenced by her father running at Harry with a sharp knife, about half a foot in length. The latter was armed with a similar instrument and, locked in each other’s arms, a most sanguinary conflict ensured, in the course of which both parties received some very severe stabs in the back and along the ribs. A partial encounter with the waddy and coontan then took place along the hostile lines, ending with a grand melee, in which the spears and boomerangs flew about with great rapidity; and, in the course of which the blacks displayed great tact in the use of their small shields. At last the Amity Point and Logan Blacks were routed (they were much less numerous than the others), and it was then discovered that one of the Bribe Islanders was killed. The poor fellow had received a spear through the right breast: it entered near the arm-pit, and must have penetrated the right lung, for he died within ten minutes of receiving the wound. The warriors were all hideously bedaubed with red and yellow ochres, their hair frizzled out and ornamented with parrots’ and other feathers. During the fight, the old women of the tribe, decorated in a somewhat similar manner, stood round a fire, chanting, or intoning, in a most monotonous manner; altogether it reminded one of the incantation scene in Macbeth" When the death of the black was discovered, his tribe set up a most unearthly yell, and beat their heads meantime with their waddles. The deceased was the brother of Diamond, who was employed for some time in the Customs’ boat; but on no account could the blacks be induced to pronounce his name after his decease.
(...) The writer adds that the fight of Dec.22 was followed by the revolting practice of cannibalism; for the black who was killed in the above affray was roasted and eaten; and the horrible feast was perpetrated within three miles of Brisbane.”

Summary : A fight between several Aboriginal Tribes of the Brisbane area cause by the theft of a woman. The fight results in one death and the occurance of cannibilsm of the dead man's body. This an example of ritualistc cannibalism [pietistic burial cannibalism - see below] rather than 'food' cannibalism.

‍

Detail :

“It appears from the Moreton Bay Free Press, published at Brisbane, that on December 22 last, one of those barbarous and disgraceful scenes was enacted among some of the aborigines, which are usually termed a war or fight, but which should rather be looked upon as among the superstitious ceremonies of a religion of which very little is known.

The scene of the conflict was a fine green flat, above a mile beyond Burnett’s Swamp [near Stones Corner]; and here, on the afternoon of the above day, were assembled a number of blacks of the Amity Point, Logan, Bribe’s Island, and Ninny-Ninny (Ningy-Ningy) tribes - the former being opposed to the two latter; in all they amounted to about one hundred and fifty - men, women, and children.

The cause of the quarrel was, a Logan black, called Harry, having stolen a gin or female of one of the opposite tribes.

The battle commenced by her father running at Harry with a sharp knife, about half a foot in length. The latter was armed with a similar instrument and, locked in each other’s arms, a most sanguinary conflict ensured, in the course of which both parties received some very severe stabs in the back and along the ribs. A partial encounter with the waddy and coontan then took place along the hostile lines, ending with a grand melee, in which the spears and boomerangs flew about with great rapidity; and, in the course of which the blacks displayed great tact in the use of their small shields.

At last the Amity Point and Logan Blacks were routed (they were much less numerous than the others), and it was then discovered that one of the Bribe Islanders was killed. The poor fellow had received a spear through the right breast: it entered near the arm-pit, and must have penetrated the right lung, for he died within ten minutes of receiving the wound.

The warriors were all hideously bedaubed with red and yellow ochres, their hair frizzled out and ornamented with parrots’ and other feathers. During the fight, the old women of the tribe, decorated in a somewhat similar manner, stood round a fire, chanting, or intoning, in a most monotonous manner; altogether it reminded one of the incantation scene in Macbeth"

When the death of the black was discovered, his tribe set up a most unearthly yell, and beat their heads meantime with their waddles. The deceased was the brother of Diamond, who was employed for some time in the Customs’ boat; but on no account could the blacks be induced to pronounce his name after his decease.

‍
(...) The writer adds that the fight of Dec.22 was followed by the revolting practice of cannibalism; for the black who was killed in the above affray was roasted and eaten; and the horrible feast was perpetrated within three miles of Brisbane.”

[Editor Notes]

See Reference on Queensland Aboriginal Cannibalism here

where we read :

According to R. M. and C. H. Berndt the practice of pietistic burial cannibalism (known also as endo-cannibalism) was very widespread throughout Australia. In many cases the whole of the body, except the bones, intestines, and genitalia, was eaten: however, the Dieri '^ and adjacent tribes of Central Australia ate only the fatty parts of the face, thighs, arms, and stomach.

‍

‍

“I may now mention, that near my own house on the Yeo Yeo, some years afterwards, I witnessed another battle, most fierce and bloody, of the natives.”

Summary : An Aboriginal oral-history recorded by Aboriginal man Dick Roughsey where he describes a massive flood and revenge due to sorcery consequences that will bring. He was a Liardil man from an island adjacent to Mornington Island in the Gulf of Carpentaria. See Wikipedia

Detail :

“The greatest flood remembered by our people came during the lifetime of our big warrior, Warrenby. He was a very tall and strong man and a full warrama when the flood came. Warrenby had two wives then and was living with them and other men and their families on Langu-Narnji. There is one high place on this island. It is a big sandridge on the south-east side — nearly 100 feet above sea level. There is some coralite rock near the top of the ridge and a low cave in the rock. When the heavy rain began Warrenby and his people went up into this cave for shelter. The rain kept falling for days and the tides were coming higher and higher, flooding the low country. The people were wondering about this flood, as they themselves hadn’t made it. They thought someone else must have been able to make a flood and had sent it to punish them. The rain poured down and the people couldn’t hunt or fish. Their walpas (rafts) were washed away, and soon their firewood was gone and they were cold and shivering. The water rose higher and the sandhill remained the only place above water. Then the people saw they were not alone. All the wallabies were also on the hill, and snakes, goannas, lizards, rats, centipedes, cockroaches, and birds. Everything living had come scrambling, up on to the hill to escape the flood. There was now plenty of food.

‍
At first they ate raw meat, but when the rain eased they gathered driftwood and dried it out in the cave before cooking their food. Fish, dugong and turtle swam where the wallaby should have been feeding, but when the waters went down many of the sea creatures were stranded in shallow pools, and Warrenby and his mob grew fat on the harvest of the storm.

‍
Warrenby watched the water going back and said to his people: We didn’t make that terrible flood, but we’ll be blamed for it because we own the flood-making place. Many people all over these islands will have drowned, and their relations will be coming to kill us for payback. We must make many spears and boomerangs; we must have more nulla-nullas.

‍
While the people still had plenty of food left from the flood they set to work making more weapons for the fights that they knew would come. Other Larumbanda who had sheltered on high ground such as Dinglema also crossed over to Langu-Narnji to join Warrenby and make a strong force of fighting men. Day and night they had a man watching the crossing at Doolgarnun Point so that they wouldn’t suffer a surprise attack.

‍
For almost a moon the men made weapons and practised fighting while the women gathered shellfish, crabs and any other food they could get.

‍
Then one day the guard at the crossing came running to say that a strange man was crossing at low tide. Warrenby went with the other men and spoke to the stranger, who said he was Yanggarl from Forsyth Island. He was just passing through and looking out for some of his people who had been swept away in the floods. They gave him some food and while he was eating, some of the Larumbanda walked away and talked about him. They asked Warenby what he thought.
He stinks like fish vomit. I think he’s a spy sent by the Yanggarl to see how strong we are. We must kill him. The Yanggarl man was given more food and while he ate it greedily, Warrenby speared him. They dragged his body away and threw it into the sea for the sharks.

‍
Another moon passed, and by now Warrenby had all his plans ready, and every man knew his job. So when a boy came running from a crossing to say that a big mob of men were coming, only Warrenby went down to meet them while the rest hid themselves. He saw a of painted warriors coming along the low cliffs opposite. They were running along, dancing and jumping about. Some were do doing the dance of the Brolga, some the Crane, some the Seagull and Barramundi.

Each man was doing his own totem dance and they each carried a bundle of spears and boomerangs.
They saw Warrenby standing on the crossing with only a couple of fish spears in his hand. They came closer, and Warrenby called out : Why have you people come here? We’ve come to kill all you Larumbanda mob because you made the flood, and many people died, they yelled and screamed back.

‍
The painted warriors danced about, working themselves into a rage. They screamed insults at Warrenby and his mob, and tugging their beards, threw their wind at Warrenby to try and kill him by sorcery.

‍
Warrenby went out on the crossing toward the warriors and tried to tell them that the Larumbanda had not caused the flood. He gammoned (pretended) to be frightened and told them to go away and leave the poor Larumbanda in peace because most of their men had also been drowned in the flood. The Yanggarl believed Warrenby because they could see no tracks of men going to or from the crossing. They became hungry for an easy killing of a few men, and the capture of their women and children. They were not afraid of the cowering Warrenby and his two fish spears.

‍
Warrenby kept getting closer to the Yanggarl and all the time waving and shouting at them to go away. They didn’t know that Warrenby could throw a spear further than any other man, and all the time he was judging the distance to them. His first spear came as a complete surprise when it flashed into the capering mob to bury its serrated double head in the throat of a Yanggarl and put him threshing on the sand.

‍
The Yanggarl men now screamed their fury at Warrenby and rushed. in a mob tog within spear range, fitting the hollowed back ends of spears into wommera hooks as they ran. Warrenby also turned and ran, but when the first spear quivered into the mud near him, he turned and hurled his last spear and shouted his defiance as it thudded into the stomach of a running warrior.

‍
It now became a running fight, with the powerful Warrenby easily keeping his distance ahead of the yelling mob. Every now and then he would turn and wait for a spear to come and cleverly turn it aside with his wommera, then he would pull it out of the ground, fit it to his wommera and hurl it back at the enemy before running on toward Doolgarnun Point. Two more Yanggarl were down in the mud clawing at spears in their bodies by the time Warrenby ran up the beach at Doolgarnun.

‍
The Yanggarl shouted in triumph when they saw a young boy get up from the long grass behind the beach and run ahead of Warrenby. They were now certain that the Larumbanda were few and hurled more spears and boomerangs as they chased the two along a shallow grassy valley between two long sand dunes. Warrenby stopped by a pandanus palm and turned to shout insults at his pursuers, using the pandanus as a shield against the shower of spears and boomerangs.

‍
The Yanggarl were now in the trap, and most of their spears and boomerangs had been thrown at the running Warrenby. Their war cries turned to yells of fear when a mob of men rose out of the grass on each side of them and began hurling spears and boomerangs. The invaders turned to run from the trap, but whistling spears and whirling boomerangs cup them down. Only one man escaped to the crossing, but Warrenby, in relentless pursuit, caught him out on the mudflats to end his life with a spear.

‍
The Larumbanda gave the Yanggarl as much mercy as they would have received from them, and went among the wounded invaders, smashing their skulls with nulla-nullas until every man was dead. They then dragged the bodies along to a deep channel and threw them in to the water, saying, There you are, rock cod, there you are shark. All you sea people can now have a big feed.

‍
Since that time of the flood and the battle afterwards, the Yanggarl have always been few in numbers, and have never again come in battle against us. Today only a few Yanggarl are left here at Mornington.

‍
The old folk say that it wasn’t a good thing to kill all those Yanggarl men, because their home island of Forsyth is between Mornington Island and the mainland, and when the tribe was strong they stopped the mainland tribes from raiding the Wellesley Islands after women. After the Warrenby fight the Yanyula tribe from Booraloola used to raid Forsyth Island, travelling by walpa from the mainland.”

[Editor's note] We have located some images of the Wellesley (Bentinck) Islander Aboriginal people from the times of first contact. They would be similar in appearance to the Yanggarl above, who were from Forsyth Island in the Wellesley Group.

Summary : A real-life story by Aboriginal man, Dick Roughsey where he describes the violent consequences of his act of 'wife-stealing'.

See Wikipedia

Detail :

“I was camped with my cousin Nalga. We were single men and hunted together. One day we went out to the reef to hunt fish at low tide. We speared enough fish, for two meals and took them inland to cook. While we were making firesticks we heard women talking a few hundred yards away. We were tired of being single and decided to steal some wives. There were two women so we sneaked up and caught them and tied vines around their necks as a sign of marriage. We took them away into the bush.

‍
We knew we would have to fight for the women, so after a few days we began to make spears. We made the spearheads from hard-wood, and our girl friends made binding string from the inner bark of beach hibiscus. There were no long straight sticks left for spear handles so we had to join three short pieces of hibiscus wood together and bind the spearhead to them. We needed to make fighting boomerangs but couldn’t find any good bent limbs or roots. We decided to make a lot of the short-pointed throwing sticks called lalbanin, in place of boomerangs.

‍
The old men would come at night to try and kill us as we slept. We camped in the bush and at night made a fire and put heaps of grass near it; but we didn’t sleep there; after dark we four slipped away into the bush to camp under grass without fire. One of us always kept watch.

‍
One night when Nalga was keeping watch he saw a mob of men creeping up to our campfire and getting ready to spear the heaps of grass. As they stabbed their spears into the grass we came up behind and speared two of them. Before they knew what was happening we knocked two more down with our throwing sticks. The others ran away back to tell the rest of their people.

‍
A few days later we left the women in hiding and went down to hunt for fish. While we were on the beach a big mob came over the sand dunes behind us. We ran as hard as we could along the beach and they followed, throwing spears. We threw our spears back at them and also any of theirs that did not break on hitting the ground. We killed or wounded many men with our spears and throwing sticks before we got away. They did not try to kill us again for a long time.”

Summary : An eye-witness recollection of what pre-colonial Aboriginal life was like in a tough environment with frequent maraudings from adjacent tribes.

Detail :

‍

“Later that morning Jacko saw two strange men pulling a raft up on to the beach. He ran back to camp and woke his father, who grabbed his spears and ran down to the beach. The two strange men made signs of peace. They spoke a strange tongue and made signs to explain that they had been blown away from Dulkawalgee, as they called Bentinck Island, and they wanted to camp until the wind dropped and they could try to paddle back home.

‍
Buldthud took the men back to his camp and gave them water and some blue-fish to eat. He made sign talk then, telling the men to stay and rest and later they could go and camp on the next point. He would go and tell the rest of the people that it was all right. When they saw a fire on the point they were to walk around and he would show them the well for water. He picked up his spears and wommera and went off.

‍
But Buldthud was only gammon (pretending) to be friendly. He intended to kill those two men. When he was out of sight he ran off to another big camp where there were many more Larumbanda men, including my own father, Goobalathaldin. He ran into camp shouting : Two strange men have come – they might try to steal our women so we must kill them.

‍
All the people were excited. They laughed and danced about while men put their spears in the sea to tighten the bindings, and got boomerangs and nulla-nulla clubs ready.

‍
When they were all ready Buldthud took them across to the point where the Kaiadilt men were going to camp. They hid themselves near a well behind sand dunes where the visitors would get their water. Then Buldthud lit the signal fire. The Bentinck men came along carrying only wommeras; this is a sign of peace when visiting another country. A man cannot kill without a spear, but if anyone throws a spear at him, he can fend it off with the wommera and then use the wommera to hurl the spear back. Buldthud pointed the way to the well and they went toward it while he waited behind.

‍
The Kaiadilt men became suspicious as they neared the well. They must have seen signs of tracks through the long yellow grass and scrubby bush, or smelled the hiding men. They turned suddenly and started running back. The Larumbanda men jumped up and ran after them hurling spears. The Kaiadilt kept dodging the spears and then pulled them out of the ground to throw back at their attackers. The running fight went on until two Larumbanda men were wounded badly, one with a spear in the shoulder and another with spear in the thigh.

‍
Buldthud had been hiding behind a sand dune. He now came running and calling out, saying that they should not kill the Kaiadilt as they were his friends. He ran between his own people and the Kaiadilt and began defending them by deflecting spears with his nulla-nulla. When they stopped throwing spears he walked backwards towards the Kaiadilt men, calling on everybody to be good friends.

When the Larumbanda men put their weapons on the ground the Kaiadilt went toward them slowly. But of course Buldthud was still gammon and he managed to sneak up behind the Kaiadilt men and knocked them both to the ground with his nulla-nulla.

All the Larumbanda grabbed their spears and rushed up and speared the helpless men until they were dead. Their bodies were dragged down to the sea and thrown to the sharks.

A cruel story, but life was very hard for the old people. Sometimes there was not enough food to share, and they were always fighting over food and women. A man could trust only his closest relatives; anyone else might be planning to kill him at the first chance.”

‍

“In 1849 I saw a battle where about 500 of the Narrinyeri met some 800 of the Wakanuwan, and it was very evident that if the conflict had not been stopped by the colonial authorities the Narrinyeri would have signally defeated their opponents.”

Summary : A very large 'parrying' battle due to a voluntary abduction of a woman. No deaths due to the presence of a 'posse of the mounted police'.

‍

Detail :

“On one occasion by some means, either with or without her consent (I think it was the former) (...) a marriageable young man of the plains, stole a nice young woman from the hill tribes and the result was a declaration of war. For days, hooting and yelling messengers passed from camp to camp. This sort of aboriginal ambassadorial, and diplomacy continued for nearly a week without any satisfactory results.

I suppose the blacks of the plain were thought to have had the best of the bargain, because neither king, priest, father, mother, brothers nor sisters, nor the whole fraternity of relations, could induce the maiden to renounce her gallant Leander.

So the Murray blacks resolved to take her, or at least "to know the reason why". Meanwhile as the sap was up in the trees as high as the blood in their bodies, they prepared for the contest by stripping the bark from the white and blue gums, in pieces of about three feet by two feet six inches, out of which they made their shields. (...) When properly "done," (...) it received a coating of pipeclay or lime, and then was ornamented with red bands made of the juice of a small tuber which grew in abundance on the virgin soil. The warriors themselves painted their faces, arms, breasts, and legs in a manner which gave them a most hideous expression, calculated I suppose, to inspire feelings of dread in the minds of their enemies; but as the adornments were given to both parties, I should imagine that the dread would be mutual.

‍
If the reader can imagine 300 or 400 warriors on each side in all their panoply of glorious war, marching in line with shields as here depicted, and "the quivering spear uplifted high," he will admit that war, even among the aboriginal Australians had its serious aspect. (...)

‍
The morning of the day of battle dawned, and by ten o’clock both forces were in motion. Scouts were thrown out. The battle-field selected was a clear space of a few acres a few hundred yards to the east of Mr. Gwynn’s residence (...). On reaching the ground, each side formed itself in single line, facing each other, separated only by a space of not 100 yards; the women and children of each tribe occupying the rear of each side respectively.

Then followed more palaver, or yabber yabber, degenerating at last into language more expressive than polite, and of an extremely personal character ; in fact each side did its best to "rile" the other. The "riling" was as mutual as the abuse was reciprocal. Where was I all this time? I followed the Murray tribe for some time, at a very respectful distance, and at last perched myself where I was out of danger but could see and hear all that my curiosity desired.

Unlike the Americans they never fought among trees, and unlike the Europeans there was no danger of a stray shot. I was safe. Their fundamental law of battle was a most humane one, and that was, the side which had the first one, or at most two, killed, must accept, defeat; then each party would retire to its respective camps.. There was no such thing as a war of extermination with these tribes. If my memory does not deceive me, I do not think the same intertribal law held good on the immense Peninsula of Port Lincoln, on the western side of Spencer’s Gulf.

The signal for battle was given, and out shot from both sides a volley of spears, the sharp-pointed ones used in hunting large game. These were neatly caught on the shields. (...) This sort of thing might have gone on till the youngest brave was grey-headed, and no one would have been hurt.

Presently their passions became more inflamed, and then began as lively a bit of fighting as the most inveterate fire-eater could have desired, and called into play all the attention that the quick-eyed men could command. Some spears flew in graceful deadly curves through the air, while others hissed along, like so many flying serpents, about a foot or so from the ground. The shields wore now up, now down, as instant emergency required.

The lines drawing closer, one of the Murray tribe had a barbed spear clean through the calf of his leg; the spear had to be broken to get it out of the wound. Things at this moment began to look critical, when a posse of mounted police, which had been sent for and hurriedly dispatched from Adelaide, galloped forward and stopped further bloodshed.

‍
(...) Under a threat of being shot at, proceedings between the contestants were stayed for a time. The women and children taking care of the spears, the men were allowed to fight out their grievance and vindicate their soiled honour with waddies ! (...) Imagine 700 or 800 painted savages with painted shields, yelling like demons and hurling at each other 800 waddies, all on an area of less than an acre.

The waddies were thrown with amazing rapidity; some met in mid-air and went up like a pair of newhr married sky-rockets. Those that came home to the object aimed at, were parried by the shields, and going over the contestants’ heads, they glittered in the sun like a shower of twenty-inch icicles; falling in the rear they were secured by the lubras and children, then handed to their fighting husbands, or fathers, as the case might he.

Sometimes a waddy would be received obliquely on a shield, which was otherwise held upright, the result, was it would glance against the head or face of the right or left hand man; should it hit the head no evil would follow, as the thickness of the skull was an unfailing safeguard against concussion of the brain; but should it, unfortunately, find its way to the region of the stomach, then followed a fearfully explosive grunt, a sudden collapse of all martial ardour, and a speedy retirement to the rear.

These events tended to break the order and discipline which, up to this point, had been well sustained. Then followed a fortuitous and promiscuous mixture, outvying a hundred full blown Donnybrooks; hard bits were resisted by harder heads, until both parties were exhausted, and the result was, in the language of the football and cricket field "a draw."

No lives were lost thanks to the presence of the police, and but little damage was done, whilst as to vindicated honour, it was, in the words of the drill instructor, "as you were."”

Summary : A large, highly regimented and ritualised battle was eye-witnessed by a settler near Maryborough in Qld.

eries of 'battles' that started with a womans's abduction. This series of battles, taken together, might be called a 'war'. The total 'war' death toll was said to be 'over 200' killed.

Detail :

“BLACKS FIGHT - AN OLD TIME INCIDENT

The following interesting article, written by Eugene F. Rudder, appeared in an exchange:

An aboriginal tribal fight was novel, exciting and most interesting. The weird fantastic manner in which every man engaged was bedaubed with paint and decorated with feathers made him look a much more formidable being than he really was. The hair was caught up on top of the head into a cone mixed with white ochre, and wound around with long narrow strips of bear or opossum skins to keep it in position. On top of this would be stuck eagle, swan or native companion feathers arranged according to the fancy of the individual warrior. His body, arms and legs would be painted with lines and rings of white ochre, to make him look as terrifying as possible.

A fully dressed warrior would be equipped with two spears, a shield (which, in the North Coast districts, was made of hardwood; about three foot long and eighteen inches wide, and coming to an obtuse point at each end, with a handle firmly fixed on the inside), and two fighting or hunting boomerangs, rather long and heavy and not greatly curved, with the edges sharpened sufficiently to cut into what they struck.

In addition he would have two paddymelon hunting sticks made of very heavy strong wood; about fifteen inches long and one and a quarter inches thick, brought to an obtuse point at each end. These, and a short knife made of bone (or iron when they could get it) pointed, and only about an inch long with a 4-inch handle, bound round with string and gum, completed the fighting weapons of a fully-armed combatant. The knife was not intended to kill, but to wound an enemy in single combat. The object was to emasculate the foe.

The only body dress of the aboriginal warrior was two bundles of narrow strips of opossum skins fastened to a belt around the waist and hanging before and behind to just above the knees.

On one occasion the writer saw a wound that had been inflicted on a powerful aboriginal with one of the short knives. It extended from the shoulders to the hip. The wound was some days old, and was then filled with dry earth, the tips of the wound being fully an inch apart, but the man seemed to make little of his frightful injury.

Burnt earth was commonly used by the natives to cure bad wounds at that time, the burnt earth being placed on the wound and allowed to remain there.

In 1859 I witnessed a fight in Queensland between, the Mary River blacks and the Fraser Island blacks on a small plain not far from Mr. Palmer's property, one of Queensland's pioneer sugar growers, five or six miles from Maryborough. It was a treeless plain on the margin of a dense brush on one side with sloping forest ranges running up into the hills on the other, and both ends being flanked by thick half brush and half forest timbers. The flat was about fifteen chains long, and five chains wide.

On riding down one of the sloping ranges to the plains with a companion, we noticed that there were two camps of blacks, one at each end of the plain, the centre of each camp being nearly hidden by the thick trees. On nearing the camps we were met by a couple of Maryborough blacks, who tried to persuade us to go away, but this we refused to do; we promised, however, not to come too near, and not to interfere in any way. This satisfied them, and we took up a position on an open ridge running down to the plain, whence we could have a good view of both camps.

'Men were standing about in the open, painting each other for the fight — some of them talking very excitedly. We also, noticed that the elderly gins were congregating together and talking very excitedly, and that all were carrying yam sticks. These sticks were made of very hard strong wood, and about five feet long, and an inch and a half thick in the middle, and coming to a very sharp point at both ends. They were used chiefly by the women for digging up yams. Occasionally the women would fight with them, holding the sticks in the middle with both hands and striking and stabbing with them, terrible wounds being sometimes inflicted.

DERIDED BY THE GINS
After waiting for some time, half a dozen old women from the Fraser Island tribe marched straight up to a group of the Mary River warriors, already armed and ready for the fight, and began to abuse them, flourishing their yam sticks as if to stab the men in the face or body, and continued to do this for a couple of minutes, working themselves up into an apparent fury of rage, but the men stood it all quite calmly, not deigning to notice or speak to the women.

After shrieking themselves nearly hoarse at the first group of men, they went to several other knots of men and went through the same performance, until they marched back to their own camp. As soon as these viragos had reached their friends half a dozen women from the Maryborough tribe marched to the Fraser Island blacks and went through a similar performance, and apparently tried to outdo the women of the other tribe in ferocity and violence.

This, we were afterwards told by some civilised blacks, was done by the women to show their contempt for the enemy tribe as fighters not worthy to stand up against their own men.

THE CHALLENGE
A few minutes later a remarkably fine-looking blackfellow from the Fraser Island tribe, painted in the most fantastic manner, came out from a group of men and walked to within a hundred yards of the Maryborough camp, where a number of fully armed men were standing in groups in front of their gunyahs on the edge of the thick timber, and stood, a fine looking figure, apparently throwing out a challenge to any Maryborough black to come out and do single combat with him.

No one answered him or made any response and he ended his tirade by hurling a boomerang with all his force at a group of half a dozen men standing in front of the nearest gunyah, but they simply opened out and let the boomerang pass between them. The Fraser Island man then turned and walked back to his own camp without as much as turning his head to see if an attack would be made upon him. He carried himself magnificently, and with his war-paint and weapons looked a rather dangerous foe to tackle.

Soon after this incident the fighting men on both sides began to come together in a body, but notwithstanding the fact that we estimated there must have been fully seventeen hundred blacks — men, women and children of both tribes — on the plain, there were only about sixty men on each side to be actually engaged in the battle.

As the armed men moved towards the centre of the plain, there was much excitement among the non-fighting men and the women in the camp, who had come to the front of the camp to look out. Presently, the men stood, and were addressed by an old man with no war-paint or weapons upon him. He appeared to be earnest and emphatic. When he concluded his oration he walked back to his gunyah and sat down. Similar proceedings were going on in the enemy camp, the man addressing the Fraser Island men was a far finer looking fellow. When his ceremony was over, both sides moved to the centre of the plain, and ranged themselves into three lines of men, each about nine feet apart in the rows.

When all was apparently ready, a man from the centre of the first line stepped to the front and addressed the enemy, using only about a dozen words, which, was responded to by the apparent leader on the enemy side.

SHOWERS OF SPEARS
The moment that these men stepped back to their places in the front line, a shower of spears was hurled at the enemy by the Fraser Island men, instantly followed by a shower of spears by the Maryborough men. Every man was armed with two spears and a shield made of Queensland sandal wood, about two feet long and about seven inches thick, with a handle cut inside the shield to hold with the hand.

It was intensely interesting to watch the men on both sides, trying to catch the point of a spear on their shields. If they succeeded they would give a quick jerk of the wrist and the spear would either fall out of the shield or the point of the spear would break off in the shield. The latter was what was most desired, as it was looked upon as a valuable trophy of a fight, although the marks of a spear in a shield were highly prized.

In another moment another flight of spears was thrown, and every black again tried to catch a spear on his shield, but he stepped on one side to let the spear pass should he miss it. As soon as the second flight of spears was thrown the men in the second rank stepped to the front and again a shower of spears was in the air.

CHIVALROUS COMBATANTS
It was then that occurred a remarkable phase of the fight. Two men were to be seen walking, between the lines of fighters calmly picking up the spent spears and carrying them through the lines to the back of the fighters. They seemed to take no notice whatever of the spears that appeared from the distance to be falling thick around them, but they did their work quite calmly and apparently without fear.

We found out that it was the rule in such a fight for the enemy to be most careful not to throw a spear so as to endanger a picker-up of spears being hit, hence their deliberate calm way of passing through a flight of spears without fear.

FIRST BLOOD
When the fight was at this stage a drizzling light rain began to fall, just enough to wet the grass and, make it slippery, and while the grass was in this stage a very tall, active-looking young Mary River warrior made a spring to pick up a spear from the ground close to him. As he stooped to get the spear, his feet shot from under him and he fell sideways.

While in the act of getting up a spear struck him in the cheek, passed through his mouth and stuck out fully two foot through the other cheek. He got up slowly, but there was an instant shout and all fighting stopped. The speared man walked slowly to the front, and was quickly surrounded by a howling demonstration of sympathy, mixed with shouts of anger.

THE DUEL WITH KNIVES
While this was going on, a man was seen to leave the ranks of the opposition side, and run up one of the low open ranges. In another moment, the man who had been speared burst with a shout from the women that surrounded him, and started in pursuit of the man running up the hill, who began to slacken his speed, apparently to let his pursuer come up with him.

After going a few hundred yards, the man in front dropped to a walk, and the man chasing him slowed down. When they were about one hundred and fifty yards apart the man in front turned round and walked slowly back towards his enemy, who also dropped his pace to a walk. They had no weapons but their knives, which they held in their right hands.

We had followed to see what would happen. Watching the men we expected to see them rush at each other to try to get in a first blow. Instead, they made no attempt to strike, but deliberately put their arms around each other’s neck, and not till they had got good holds did anything happen. Then commenced a whirling of arms, and presently they fell to the ground, and twisting their legs around each other squirmed about the ground, still trying to stab and score each other with their short knives.

A number of men from both sides came up to look on. We were expecting every moment to see one man give in or be killed, but instead there was a sudden cessation of the struggle, and each man quietly and without haste unwound his legs and arms from the other, and without uttering a word, got up and walked to his own group of tribesmen, a dozen yards away.

Hardly a word was spoken, and the two groups of men, each with their wounded comrade with them, walked to their separate camps. We could see the blood oozing from several wounds in each man, but they did not appear too weak to walk.

THE END OF THE FIGHT
In the meantime a great, wailing cry came up from the women in both camps, but we soon found that the single combat was the end of the fight. When the men reached their camps, the women stopped their cries, and the men stood about in groups talking excitedly, the wounded men being taken to some gunyah among the trees.

We learned afterwards, that under some conditions, the first blood drawn from a serious wound put an end to the fight. Realising that the fight was over and that it was getting late, we returned to Maryborough after a most exciting and interesting day's experience.”

credit: Ray Kerkhove

“Rode on to Churnside’s Mt William. ... Said the natives of the Hopkins and Mt Rouse had a fight at his station with the Grampians on the Wannon some time back, one was killed and several badly wounded, the Grampians blacks defeated. Saw a lot of natives at Churnside’s and one half cast child.”

“In the early days the natives were very plentiful, and the camp of the Adelaide tribe was always on the Torrens.

I have seen two or three native battles. The tribes would come down from Mount Barker and Encounter Bay and fight on the plains.

I saw one big fight near where Hilton now is. I suppose there must have been 400 or 500 blacks engaged.

They threw their spears, and occasionally got to close quarters with their waddies. One or two were killed. The whites did not interfere, because the fight was a tribal one, and, indeed, we found it very exciting viewing the encounter from a safe distance.”

‍

Summary : Relates that 60-70 were killed over a two year period during several battles.

Detail :

“I remember an instance of an old black fellow dying of as near an approach to old age as may be conceived ; but, as usual, he was questioned after death by one of the sapient mischief-makers of his tribe, who elicited, or pretended to elicit, from him, a report to the effect that his death was caused by the influence or connivance of someone belonging to a neighbouring tribe, doubtless pitched upon, by the old villain out of spite; the consequence of which of course was, a demand for vengeance on the head of the unfortunate victim thus selected.

The usual fighting then ensued, and several on either side were killed; each of whom having been likewise supposed to impart after his death the name of his murderer, occasioned still farther necessity for slaughter.

In this manner an idea may perhaps be obtained of the effect of this destructive custom. These battles of course have their terminations, but in the space of two years I witnessed, as nearly as I could estimate, the destruction of between sixty and seventy lives out of two tribes residing on or near my station, the result entirely of this custom.”

“On my next trip from Mount Gambier, I found on coming to She Oak Wells, that the blacks of that district were that very moment at the midst of a fray with the Tatiara blacks (...)

I tethered my horses and took up a position on an embankment within view of the fight, but at a safe distance from a stray spear. The main bodies on each side would charge with the fury of demons, and coming to close quarters would lay on, the men with their nullahs-nullahs and the women with their yam-sticks.

The men carried for defence wooden shields about six inches wide and sharpened at each end. They were so dexterous with these that they could ward off spears thrown from a distance. While the nullah-nullah fighting was in full swing, spear-throwers stationed somewhat in the rear were hurling their spears with, in many cases, fatal effect.

Some blacks lay dying, and some were running about with their bodies transfixed. There seemed to be about 200 engaged in the fight, which lasted some hours and ended in the defeat of the Tatiara tribe and the capture of as many of their young gins as possible; while the old crones were driven off as the rest of the fugitives, leaving the dead and wounded on the ground.”

Summary : A total massacre of an innocent neighbouring clan that had been accused of sorcery. The Bangerang believed that revenge was called for after the death of their Elder known as Pepper.

A series of 'battles' that started with a womans's abduction. This series of battles, taken together, might be called a 'war'. The total 'war' death toll was said to be 'over 200' killed.

Detail :

“The following morning, just before daylight (and at the same hour for months after), arose from the camp that long-drawn-out wail of some female relative of the deceased, which persons familiar with our Blacks forty years ago will no doubt remember. Here and there also, had anyone stood in the camp, might have been noticed a woman sitting at her fire, silently weeping as she listened to the song of sorrow.

Shortly after sunrise the men, spear in hand (for no one ever left the camp without at least one spear), went over to the new grave. Entering its enclosure, they scanned with eager eyes the tracks which worms and other insects had left on the recently disturbed surface. Concerning these tracks, I was told by my brother, who was present, that there was a good deal of discussion, as in the eyes of the Blacks, as we all know, they were believed to be marks left by the wizard whose incantations had killed the man, and who was supposed to have flown through the air during the night to visit the grave of his victim. The only difficulty was to assign any particular direction to the tracks, as in fact they wandered to and from every point of the compass.

At length one young man, pointing with his spear to some marks which took a north-westerly direction, exclaimed, in an excited manner, “Look here I. Who are they who live in that direction? Who are they but our enemies, who so often have waylaid, murdered, and bewitched Bangerang men? Let us go and kill them.” As Pepper’s death was held to be an act particularly atrocious, this outburst jumped with the popular idea of the tribe, and was welcomed with a simultaneous yell of approval which was heard at the camp, whence the shrill voices of the women re-echoed the cry.

‍
The principal point being settled, and all doubt as to who caused Pepper’s death being thus removed from the Bangerang mind, grave deliberations followed for many days around the camp-fires. The main body of the tribe was collected, and messengers sent to the neighbours to learn whether they had any objections to an onslaught on the devoted people, as, owing to the intermarriages of tribes, difficulties sometimes arose in such cases.

Spies, too, went quickly into the hostile country to gain information as to the whereabouts of its inhabitants. These preliminaries having been gone through, those men of the Bangerang who chose to be of the party, and one or two volunteers from neighbouring tribes, started on the war-path. As they had a long forced march before them, and they had agreed to go entirely without fire and to leave their tomahawks behind, lest the smoke and the noise of chopping out opossums should discover their presence to their intended victims, they applied at the last moment to my brother, who was on the station at the time, for a small quantity of flour, with which, of course, he declined to supply them.

All being ready, and the dogs secured in the camp to prevent their following, the war party, consisting of some fifteen men, one by one, clubs and spears in hand, without a syllable of adieu to wife or child, took their departure, the sable forms of the dusky warriors, who gradually fell into Indian file, being quickly lost to sight amidst the shades of the forest. What occurred on the occasion of this Expedition was related to me some time after by more than one of the actors in it, and may be taken as a fair specimen of Australian warfare.

It was as follows:
On leaving their own country the party proceeded stealthily, and chiefly by night marches, to the neighbourhood of Thule station, visiting on their way those spots (known to one of the volunteers) at which parties of the doomed tribe were likely to be found. After several days’ wandering from place to place, subsisting on a few roots hurriedly dug up, and suffering considerably from hunger and fatigue, they caught sight, as they were skulking about towards sun down, of a small encampment, without being themselves seen, upon which they retired and hid in a clump of reeds.

About two o’clock in the morning the war-party left their hiding place and returned to the neighbourhood of the camp, and having divested themselves of every shred of clothing, and painted their faces with pipe clay, they clutched their spears and clubs, and walking slowly and noiselessly on, soon found themselves standing over their sleeping victims.

‍
I can well realize the scene, for I have often heard such described. Had there been an onlooker at that moment near the camp, he would have observed in front of the mia-mias several small fires, some smouldering, some burning up brightly, and, to windward of them, the recumbent figures of perhaps a dozen sleepers, little and big, wrapped in their opossum-rugs.

Close by some of them he would have seen a number of spears stuck upright in the ground, showing where the men lay, and almost in the ashes of the fires a pack of half-starved dogs.

Directing his eyes to the distance, he might then have become vaguely sensible of some dark objects in motion. If they had attracted his attention, it would have been, however, only for a moment, as their speedy fading from sight would probably have led him to imagine them to be only the result of changing clouds, and moon light in the forest.

Suddenly he would once more have caught sight of the dusky shapes, but this time unmistakably, and nearer at hand. Then he would have watched their approach, now lost amidst the shadows of the trees, now re-appearing and flitting lightly over spaces shone on by the moon. Had he been a novice in such matters, even then he might have failed to realize the import of what was passing before his eyes, so shadow-like and silent would have been the apparition.

By degrees, however, the objects he was observing would become more distinct; he would recognize them to be men, naked, armed with spear and club, bent nearly double, and approaching with quick noiseless steps. Soon they would be at hand; within the halo of the camp fires, standing erect; when circles of white clay around the eyes, and streaks of the same material along the ribs and legs, giving them the ghastly look of skeletons, would become visible. He would now see the expanded chest, the inflated nostrils, the flashing eyes of the sinister visitors.

‍
According to native custom no one was on watch at the camp, and I have often heard the Blacks say that their half-starved dogs seldom gave the alarm in cases of strange Blacks, though they would bark if the intruders were white men.

Arrived at the fires, the attacking party paused a moment, held the points of their spears in the flames and allowed them to burn a little, so that another pang might be added to the wound they were about to inflict; then with their fingers they gently raised the rugs a little from the chests of the doomed wretches, and at a given signal, with a simultaneous yell, plunged their long barbed spears into the bosoms or backs of the sleepers.

Then from the mia-mias, which were quickly overturned, came the shrieks of the dying, the screams of the women and children, blows of clubs, the vociferation of the prostrate, who were trying to defend themselves; the barking of the dogs and the yells of the assailants, who numbered fully three to one.

Altogether it was a ghastly, horrible scene that the pale moon looked down on that night at Thule; and with its enactment it might be thought that the death of Pepper had been avenged to the full.

Such, however, was not the case. Whilst the massacre was in progress, the men in the camp being troublesome to despatch, as each struggled desperately as long as he was able, and with an energy which few white men are masters of when grievously wounded, a number of women and children had made good their escape.

These, it was rightly judged, would return to the camp after some hours, and to wait their coming and murder them was at once determined on. With this view the assailants betook themselves, whilst it was yet dark, to a patch of scrub close at hand, having first mutilated the slain in the most horrible manner, torn out the kidney-fat from the wreaking corpses, burnt the camp utensils, and possessed themselves of such food as was to be found.

‍
From their lurking-place the half-starved savages watched the camp until shortly after sunrise, when the defenceless mourners made their appearance and were at once seized. What followed cannot be described. At last all were killed, except one young woman, whom a black fellow rescued from the slaughter and took away as his wife. Her fate, however, was not long delayed, for, on the march home, which was begun at once, a brute, whose thirst for blood was unusually deep, walked up behind her and knocked her brains out with his club.

After the slaughter of the women and children, daylight disclosed the fact that one of the attacking party, a volunteer from a neighbouring tribe — the murderer of the young woman — had slain his own brother in the melée without recognizing him."

‍

‍

“I once saw two or three hundred natives, in the York district, fighting in open ground, the adverse parties facing each other. I saw great numbers of flies or boomerangs flying through the air, but had no opportunity of making any observations worthy of record.”

Summary : A public, staged and pitch battle between the local Port Phillip Tribes and the Goulburn tribe, who had travelled to Melbourne for the fight. This battle and corroboree 'show' was watched by 1000 members of the Melbourne public around the Southbank/Botanical Gardens area of modern Melbourne.

‍

Detail :

“We soon had opportunities of witnessing, first a battle, then a corrobory, or native dance.

One day we saw from our tents people of all classes coming out of Melbourne, crossing the punt above and the ferry-beat below us, and all proceeding in one direction. We added ourselves to the concourse ; and soon came amongst the trees, about half-a-mile off, to the assembled warriors and spectators.

The appearance of the savage people was wild and hideous, painted red and white, naked, with their long spears, their boomerangs, their waddies; and with the women and children belonging to each tribe, two groups of them, each under a tree apart.

There was much noise and stir on both sides. One warrior would suddenly start out from amongst his comrades, and going up rapidly to the very front rank of the enemy alone, be there defied them, taunted them, poured upon them scornfully his utmost contempt; and they, all the while he was making contemptuous gestures and talking vehemently, were crouched in a row, sputtering with their lips, and tossing dust towards their defier.

Then the same defiance was acted by the adverse party. There was all at once a commotion and a shout — or well rather — and then a bomerang flew, many following after it — and spears too — and shields were as actively used for defence as the weapons were for injury.

To witness this war burlesque there were nearly a thousand of the Melbourne people, whilst of the natives there could not be more than three hundred. Would to heaven all Christian wars were as bloodless!

To hear the yells of onset and the shouts of victory, and to have seen the shifting panoply of dreadful strife, the flight of horrid weapons, you felt pretty certain all must be annihilated. Slain none; wounded one; one man was speared through the leg.

Had I not seen afterwards other battles, I should have set this down for mere mockery. Thus they do not kill each other in open warfare, but secretly and treacherously.

This battle took place through the Port Phillip tribe having been over to Goulburn, eighty miles off, and stolen away their lubras, their wives, not called gins in this part of Australia.

One of the lubras resisted, and was killed ; the others were brought away.”

“Mr. Stuart informed me that a few natives only had visited the camp; but that on one occasion some of them appeared armed, being as they said on their way to a grand fight, four of their tribe having been killed in a recent encounter.”

Summary : This staged, pitched battle in the Port Phillip region was eye-witnessed and recorded by Assistant Aboriginal Protector, William Thomas, so its details are reliable.

‍

Details :

“When two or more tribes congregate, they are ushered in by the messengers, who had been previously despatched with their diplomas, one of whom, some hours previous to the tribes’ approach, will return, and state the success or ill-success of his mission.

The new comers will sit down about half an hour, when the principal males assemble. If their meeting be hostile (which is known for days before), the war-cry is heard for a mile or more ere they arrive at the encampment.

At length the party arrives ; all males are seated together, their heads and faces daubed with clay; they look beastly and terrific. The one I shall describe took place 5th December 1844 at half-past four.

The Barrabool blacks close lined ten lines, with eight and ten in each line, seat themselves W. of the Buninyongs.

After half an hour, King William, chief of the Barrabool tribe, advanced and stated that charges had been made against his blacks of killing two of the Buninyongs and stealing lubras; that his blacks were not afraid of them, and had come down and were ready to have the accusers’ spears thrown at them.

While speaking, another advances, and brings charges against the Barrabool blacks, and bids them to come forward. This rouses the ire of the opposite tribe, when two step forward and rebut or acknowledge the assertions, remarking that they also are ready, in the presence of the other tribes assembled, to stand foremost and receive the spears of their opponents, &c.

A general bustle may be seen now in both parties; the parties more particularly accused prepare themselves, if of murder undisputed, perfectly naked, and in mourning from head to foot, squatted the ground, without spear or any other weapon save a shield to ward off the spears.

In this case it is more a judicial proceeding, or the law being carried into effect, and though the tribes are all under arms it is more to check any disturbance or interruption to the execution of what they consider the sentence. But if it be a disputed case, the parties accused on each side, generally two, three, or four, may be seen stepping forward, capering round and round, with small bunches of leaves round their ankles, as sometimes in a corrobboree; both parties are now on the general move, shaking their weapons at each other, which raises their anger, giving three yells, stamping, and making the most frightful grimaces, and with distorted gestures gathering up dust and throwing towards their opponents, which excites both parties the more.

A fire is made; then kicking the fire about they form themselves again into lines, and their chief leads them; they generally branch out and form a crescent, or extend into a long straight line.

They may be seen now on both sides capering in the strangest attitudes the body can be placed in, some running to and fro with long spears in their hands, with their noses almost touching the ground; others vociferating, lifting up their heels to their bottoms; some advancing even among their opponents, and as actively backing themselves, pointing and gritting their teeth, while others are dancing round and round like Jim Crow.

Those with leaves around their legs are stationary. All the aforesaid moves and grimaces are merely flashes in the pan; the chiefs and other important characters keep on wrangling, pointing with their spears towards one party and another till the word of command.

Then each black is at his post, and wonguims, spears, &c., all beside each fighting man, and the real warm work commences with wonguims, which are hurled apparently indiscriminately, but not so. You would be apt to doubt, seeing them five minutes after they commenced, to which side some belonged there appears such confusion ; but among them it is otherwise each knows his work.

The missiles are, in the first instance, hurled without intermission, directed to those who have the boughs on their legs. Some soon hit others, who plant themselves (purposely) near their friends, which causes a general fight. When the Wonguims are all exhausted, then spears are used; and should, after all, the parties who should have received punishment escape (those with boughs around the ankles), they are pounced upon with bludgeons, and at close combat seldom escape unhurt.

If things get too serious, the chiefs of other tribes will interfere (for the blacks never fight but in the presence of two or three other tribes, aware of their own weakness or passions), and with leonile rushing between the contending parties, bring the matter to a close, which is, like its commencement, ended in war, war, war, as they call it, or high words.

The fighting over, one after another may be seen moving off grumbling as he goes, and in half an hour all is the greatest harmony, and generally there is a corrobboree at night.

They seldom do much execution in their fights a few wonguim and spear wounds in some not dangerous parts of the body. They are too adroit in warding off from the breast and other mortal parts.”

“Police Report. — Melbourne, 7th April 1844. — Woolorong was suspected of murder, and condemned to be speared at by seven of the best men of the Western Port tribe; as he ran by them at a certain distance, he escaped the spears thrown at him; but a general fight took place, and the police had some difficulty in suppressing the affray, after many were seriously wounded.”

“About four years ago [1836] 77 people were killed at Little Brighton not nine miles from Melbourne. [...] [They have] no monuments whatever further than devices on trees where any great calamity have befallen them. On a large gum tree in Brighton, on the estate of Mr McMillan was a host of blacks lying as dead carved on the trunk for a yard or two up. The spot was called Woorroowen or incessant weeping. Near this spot in the year 1833 or 4, the Gippsland blacks stole at night upon the Western Port or Coast tribe and killed 60 or 70 of them.”

G. H. Haydon, Five Years' Residence in Australia Felix. London: Hamilton, Adams & Co, 1846, p. 151-152.

« Our natives listened very attentively to these recitals, their knowledge of the English language allowing them to understand the greater part of what was said, and as they were about being employed in quieting these disturbances, they took the greater interest, as it gave them an opportunity of retaliating on their old and formidable enemies, the Gipp's Land tribes, who bad invaded Westernport some years since, and had nearly annihilated a whole tribe. One of the old warriors of this tribe, who had escaped the massacre, said that his people were laying about the country like dead kangaroos. On my expressing surprise at the number that must have been killed, he construed it into an expression of unbelief.  Look at my people,'' said he; where are all my brothers ? do you see any old men ? I am the only one. I talk with the young men. My old companions sleep at Monip. He then told me that the herber or wild blacks from Gipp's Land had surrounded the tribe one night, and having killed nearly all the men, stole the females and destroyed their children, so that few escaped. Nearly all the remnant of this tribe whose members were then young, has now entered into the native force, and makes an efficient police ; being such excellent trackers, nothing can escape them when once on the trail. As the general characteristic of this people is never to forget an injury, the propriety of sending them to quiet their greatest enemies will admit of being questioned. There is very little doubt that when opportunity offered, they would execute their commission most effectually by shooting them, and what else could be expected from those who were still half savages, whose education bad been commenced under the protectors. »

George Robinson (Clark 1998, vol 4: 49) in Marie Hansen Fels, I Succeeded Once: The Aboriginal Protectorate on the Mornington Peninsula, 1839-1840, Australian National University, 2011, p. 256

« The chief or mor mun of the Yowengerre was Pur. Rine, native place Warmun, is dead. This tribe once powerful are defunct and the country in consequence is unburnt having no native inhabitants. This is the reason why the country is so scrubby. The natives of Gippsland visit the inlet at Pubin.borro and other inlets in the snowing season. There must have been an awful massacre of these natives. Mun mun jin ind’s father was a Yowengerre; Mun mun jin ind gave me an account of the natives of the country and also gave me the names. The natives of Gippsland have killed 70 of the Boongerong at Brighton. »

‍

“The Blacks knew of spasmodic raids which had been attempted by the numerically stronger Lake George tribe and also by their next door neighbours round Yass.

These had been beaten off with little loss. The one serious attempt on their supremacy occurred not long before the Whites arrived. This was a combined attack made on the North and East by these two tribes.

Much slaughter resulted on both sides, but after a three day running battle the invaders were repulsed.

As combatants had to be fed, many of their women had been brought along to see to the army's needs, not only to carry food, but with replacements of spears and boomerangs.

The victorious Nganbra warriors captured many of these lubras. They were incorporated into the tribe and later became the mothers of more men for the fighting forces.

For this reason, the losers were weakened, more by the loss of their women than by their men slain in battle.

One quite extraordinary feature of these battles was that little bitterness was shown afterwards. Normal friendly relations would be resumed by all contenders.

Seemingly, fighting with them was more of a sport than any life and death struggle.

That was the last fight of any consequence, and Ngambra's supremacy was never again threatened up to the time of the Whites taking over the dominion.”

‍

“On the 20th, I learned that there was that day to be a fight amongst the natives, at a place designated for that purpose...Having first obtained the captain's permission to do so, I got ready at 9 a.m. and went to the spot in question with Mr de Silvier and Krasil'nikov, the supercargo's assistant.

On our arrival, there was nobody about, but after a little time a large crowd began to gather (for the English have a particular love of fights of every sort.)

At 11 a.m we saw some 30 armed and running natives, all quite naked. Each had with him three spears, a shield, and a bludgeon, all these articles being made of an exceedingly hard wood which the English call ironwood.

At length, another 20 or so men ran up and, at a signal given by one of their number, they divided into several parties. Then a dreadful racket was raised on all sides and, in an instant, from two opposite quarters, spears flew...

All at once, the bludgeon goes to the head and a man is half killed by a single blow. One can scarcely imagine with what desperation and what ferocity the natives fall upon each other, now striking, now repulsing.

If a man falls, his strength gone, other men instantly club him almost to death, striking at his temple with a bestial joy. The clash of shields, flying fragments of spear, the wild cries of the victors, the pitiable wail of the wounded, bloodied faces, broken limbs.

I confess that only the English could admire all this. But the battle lasted for more than two hours and ended only when many had grown weak. I remained a few minutes longer at the scene of conflict to gaze at the wounded combatants.

I looked and was horrified: blood flowed in streams, here from a head, there from a chest or shoulder. One individual had had an eye put out; from the forehead of another there protruded the tip of a spear.

In short, almost all the natives were wounded in the most awful fashion.”

‍

“Lately, in the vicinity of the town [Sydney], a battle took place, where about 200 were engaged, I believe in consequence of the death of the celebrated Bennelong, who visited England some years ago, and was taken great notice of. The spears flew very thick, and about thirty men were wounded.”

“A pitched battle took place between a tribe of the Melbourne and the Goulburn blacks. The scene of warfare was in the vicinity of the Sydney Road, about seven miles from town.

About eighty blacks on either side placed themselves at a distance of about ten yards apart, two ropes placed at that distance, separating them from each other. The more courageous of either party occasionally advanced within the open space intervening, and were immediately selected as targets by their opponents.

At a short distance from this scene, some forty or fifty women and children, belonging to the respective tribes were also engaged in a similar occupation.

Mr. Robinson, the Protector, upon being informed of the circumstance hastened to the spot, and immediately despatched a messenger to town for Dr. Thomas, who, upon his arrival, found between thirty and forty wounded, some dangerously, and one man, belonging to the Melbourne tribe, hopelessly so, having received a spear in the breast, which had penetrated a considerable depth, inflicting a frightful wound.

A lubra, belonging to the Melbourne tribe, also received a dangerous wound on the cheek with a boomerang.

Mr. Robinson's horse was speared, and when our informant left, the courage and animosity of the belligerents appeared unabated, notwithstanding the severe injuries received on either side.”

‍

Summary : “[Assistant Aboriginal Protector William] Thomas records a massacre of 9 Aboriginal men, women and children of the Gippsland tribe [aka Two Fold Bay] by the Bunurong tribe. Other reports say 10 were killed, eight of whom were children. At least two of the children's bodies were taken by the attackers back to their camp at Kunnung (Yallock Creek near presnt day Koo Wee Rup) and eaten.

‍Detail : “[Assistant Aboriginal Protector William] Thomas commences his June 1840 letter to La Trobe with a statement that it is his ‘painful duty’ to inform him that the Western Port blacks had deceived him in February, by leaving all the women and children and the old men with him at the river Kunnung (Yallock Creek) at Western Port, and telling him that they were off to the east (Gippsland) for bullen bullen [lyrebird] tails, whereas in fact they had gone with the specific intention of finding and killing Gippsland blacks, eating their flesh and bringing some back to Western Port.

Thomas, in farewelling them on their journey into the country of their enemies warned them not to kill ‘wild blacks’ and even offered to accompany them and stand between them and the Two Fold Bay blacks and endure the spearings himself.

He told them that if they did kill blacks, he would tell the governor. They were away far longer than they had planned and Thomas feared they had fallen victim to their enemies. They arrived back weak with exhaustion, and he had to nurse them for three or four days; but he was suspicious of the time elapsed and searched their bags. He found nothing, and they assured him that everything was alright, so matters rested.

Then a settler from Westernport (Jamieson) arrived at the encampment at Kunnung and told Thomas that his blacks (Thomas’) had shown ‘my blacks’ (Jamieson’s) the flesh of a human body which they said was part of the body of a Two Fold Bay black.

Thomas interviewed the 20 Bonurong and they denied it. Then three other settlers told him the same story – Thomas’ blacks had shown ‘their blacks’ the flesh.

Thomas then devised what he called ‘a cunning strategy’ to determine the truth of the matter. He stated in his second periodical report that it was on the 24 May 1840, a Sunday, at Tubberubbabel that he finally got the truth.

Seemingly innocently, he questioned a youth who had been on the raid, and enquired where they had slept each night. He used his journal to check the number of nights they had been away. Then he confronted ‘the principal actors’. He told them that he, Thomas, knew all about his blackfellows, and that God knows, sees, and hears all too. He then repeated back to the principal actors what he had learned from the youth – where and when they encamped each night on the raid. This unnerved them, and one of them began to cry. Then the whole story came out.

They had followed tracks and come upon a sleeping encampment of 14 at Taringal by the Snowy River (it was actually the Tarwin River, but Snowy was what he wrote in his first report). They killed nine with spears and tomahawks, one man, two lubras and six children – the rest escaped.

The bodies of two of the children were quartered and brought back to Kunnung. As well, the whole body of a little child was brought back and planted in the bush not 20 yards from where Thomas was camped at Tobinerk. They ‘showed no remorse’, in fact, ‘exulted in their triumph’ but were ‘dreadfully frightened’ of what La Trobe would do when Thomas reported.

Samuel Rawson who was at Kunnung at the time recorded their return on 9 March 1840 ‘bringing immense quantities of human flesh with them; it seems they had come upon the tribe when the men were away hunting and killed ten, eight of whom were children’.

After describing the fine river and the fine countryside around the victims’ encampment, Rawson continued:

‘the blacks on their return staid several days at the station and feasted with the women and children on the flesh they had brought back and seemed to enjoy it amazingly, and were much surprised that I would not join them. It had exactly the appearance of a piece of fat pork with a very thick skin.’

In an undated later record, Thomas said that they ‘returned with pieces of mutilated bodies of their victims with them, arms, legs and pieces of flesh principally of female children eaten by them and friends’.

About the practices of the Bonurong enemies he wrote:

‘The Gippsland blacks, Omeo and others are cannibals, so far as eating their enemies – all my blacks that they have killed they eat – and when capture any of another tribe at a distance if practicable bring them prisoner giving them food etc till arrive at their tribe, when a Grand feed. They watch over him at night, making him sleep in the middle of them, some invariably watch at night – their victim was always killed by Tomahawk at back of the neck – married men and chiefs alone eat the manfood – single men, women and children don’t partake’.

Clearly there is a world of meaning in the eating of flesh and these are only Thomas’...initial encounters with that world. [F]rom our stance in the twenty-first century, it may be important to attempt to understand it, but not until all the evidence is considered, not merely the earliest."

‍